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THE AMERICAN RIFLE 






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I DEDICATE THIS WORK TO 
THE MEMORY OF 



FRANKLIN W. MANN, 



who has contributed more to the science of rifle 
shooting during the past decade than any 
• other person, an exact experimenter, 
a truthful rifleman, and a friend; 

AND TO 

ROBERT AINSLIE KANE, 

a rifleman, a nobleman, and, more than either, a 

man. Both died, their lifework uncompleted. 

I, their friend, have tried to carry it on. 



INTRODUCTION 

This work represents the study and labor of the twenty-five best 
years of my life. I have written it because I believe that there is great 
need for such a book, a book which will help to make us again what 
we were a century ago before commercialism and life in cities robbed 
our young men of most of their primitive virtues — a Nation of 
Riflemen. A nation skilled in the use of the rifle need never fear for 
their liberties, nor for those hidden dangers which accompany an 
effete civilization. Ever since the days when our frontiersmen won 
their way, and settled our country with rifle and axe the former has 
been the symbol of real manhood, and so it must always be. Rifle 
shooting for sport or war has always been associated with the red 
blooded men, and rifle competitions have never had the faintest trace 
of professionalism attached. 

In many years of careful work and study I have gained a knowl- 
edge of our national arm which it does not seem right that I should 
keep to myself, especially at a time when my country needs a most 
thorough dissemination of knowledge on the subject. I have had to 
write the book before I wanted to, and under great pressure, at the 
start of my country's participation in the Great War. By profession 
a soldier I must needs hurry it to completion before it is perhaps too 
late. I therefore ask for it consideration by the reader. 

This is not a military book. It is rather a book for the great mass of 
American manhood in whom the love for adventure, the primitive de- 
sire for treading the waste places, and the love of country have not 
been entirely sapped. But the soldier will find in it much dealing 
with the principal weapon of the Infantrymen which has not here- 
tofore been available. 

The book is mine in the main. The experiments detailed were 
mostly conducted by myself unaided, although I have incorporated 
the results of a number of experiments and much research work 
undertaken by Dr. Franklin W. Mann, as set forth in his book " The 
Bullet's Flight." I alone am responsible for the opinions expressed 
herein, and I believe that I have told the truth. 



viii INTRODUCTION 

I desire to acknowledge the assistance that I have received from the 
following of my friends: 

Franklin W. Mann. Walter G. Hudson. Paul B. Jenkins. 
Robert A. Kane. Kellog K. V. Casey. T. G. Samworth. 

Harry M. Pope. Adolph O. Neidner. J. R. Mattern. 

Many times this little coterie of riflemen have assisted me, encouraged 
me, and helped to put me on the right track. 

I have tried to arrange the sequence of the chapters in such a manner 
that a careful reading of the book in the order presented will permit of 
a full understanding of the text, often a difficult matter in a technical 
work. Some of the matter presented herewith has appeared under 
my signature in various magazines devoted to rifles and rifle shooting, 
but the larger part of it is new matter, not found elsewhere. At the 
same time it has been necessary to include much matter which is 
common knowledge among experienced riflemen and ballisticians, and 
great precautions have been taken to see that this matter has been 
presented truthfully, and without exaggeration. I have received con- 
siderable assistance from the various arms and ammunition companies 
in the mechanical preparation of the work, but no monetary consid- 
eration whatever, and the reader can regard the work as absolutely free 
from commercialism. 

TOWNSEND WHELEN. 

Headquarters, 79th Division. 

Office of the Ordnance Officer, 

Camp Meade, Md. 



CONTENTS 



PART I 

HISTORICAL, INTRODUCTORY, CONSTRUCTION AND 
BALLISTICS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I The History of tiik Rifle in America 3 

II The A. B. C. of Rifle Ballistics 15 

III The Nomenclature and Classification of American 

Rifles 20 

IV The American Rifles 23 

V Barrels 129 

VI Stocks, Forearms, Balance, and Weight 136 

VII The Sights 146 

VIII Sight Adjustment 170 

IX Telescope Sights 179 

X Bullets 197 

XI Cartridges 208 

XII Modern Rifle Powders 284 

XIII Reloading Ammunition . 338 

XIV Trajectory 360 

XV Killing Power 364 

XVI Elevation 374 

XVII Accuracy 382 

XVIII Accuracy Life and Mobilubricant 403 

XIX Zero Elevation, Barrel Flip, and Resting the Rifle . 411 

XX The Pope Muzzle Loading System 418 

XXI Target Measurement 428 

XXII Adjustments and Repairs 432 

PART II 
PRACTICAL RIFLE SHOOTING 

XXIII The A. B. C. of Marksmanship 455 

XXIV Aiming 45§ 

XXV Holding and the Firing Positions 466 

ix 



x CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XXVI Trigger Pull 4S6 

XXVII Calling the Shot 490 

XXVIII Sight Adjustment 492 

XXIX Position and Aiming Drills 501 

XXX Gallery Shooting 505 

XXXI Equipment for Outdoor Raxge Shooting . . . .514 

XXXII Elevation 520 

XXXIII Zero 526 

XXXIV Windage and Winds 52S 

XXXV The Score Book 536 

XXXVI Military Rifle Shooting 543 

XXXVII Team Shooting . . . -. 552 

XXXVIII Rest Shooting and Testing 559 

XXXIX Range Practice for the Sportsman 574 

XL Shooting at Moving Objects 584 

XL! The Rifle in the Wilderness . 588 

XLII The Cleaning and Care of the Rifle . . . ".. . 598 

XLIII Rifle-Range Construction 614 

XLIV The National Rifle Association of America . . . 625 

Index 633 



PART I 

HISTORICAL, INTRODUCTORY, CONSTRUC- 
TION, AND BALLISTICS 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

CHAPTER I 
THE HISTORY OF THE RIFLE IN AMERICA 

THE date of the invention of the rifle is not known with any 
certainty. Modern rifles and ammunition are the outcome of 
centuries of evolution. There are extant some early German cross- 
bows, the missiles from which were delivered through guiding tubes 
having spiral slots or grooves cut upon their interior surfaces. It is 
usually claimed by writers on this subject that a date between 1470 and 
1500 marks the introduction of rifling into the bore of shoulder arms 
in order to make the bullet fly true to a greater distance than was 
possible with the smooth bore. Gaspard Kollner of Vienna became 
celebrated for rifled guns as early as 1500. 

The rifle was introduced into America by the Germans from the 
Rhine countries, and the Palatine Swiss, who began settling in Penn- 
sylvania in 1683. Some of these settlers were artisans and gun- 
makers. The rifles which they first introduced were short, heavy, 
and had a bore of about an inch. The recoil was terrific, and they 
were very slow to load. The bare lead ball was driven down the 
bore by the blows of a mallet, and an iron ramrod. After the first 
shot the bore became so fouled that it often required fifteen minutes 
to load again. The settlers soon found that the shooting condi- 
tions in their new land were far different from those pertaining in 
Europe. In Europe the rifle had been used only for war, and for 
sport in settled communities where no particular hardship resulted 
from a lost or bad shot. But in America the first settlers lived in 
an immense wilderness, and had to depend upon their weapons for 
much of their food, and often for their lives. Their weapon had to 
be accurate, and it was very desirable, owing to the difficulties of sup- 
ply, that it should not waste any of the powder charge ; hence a long 
barrel was necessary. Ammunition sufficient for long periods often 
had to be carried on the person, and this led to the small-bore weapon. 

3 



4 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Speed of fire was often essential, and some settler evolved the greased 
patch. Also, in order to make the report of the rifle as light as pos- 
sible in order that it might not reach the ears of distant Indians, 
a heavy barrel was found very desirable. Gradually, as the gun- 
smiths and pioneers consulted together and experimented, these changes 
were brought about, and the first type of American rifle was evolved. 
This first American rifle reached its development about 1739. It was 
a flint-lock, long, slender, and very heavy. Its round lead bullet was 




Fig. 1 
Early American flint lock rifles. 
Upper. One of the earliest American rifles. Made by Matthew Roesser, Lan- 
caster, Pa., 1739. Half octagon barrel, weight 8 pounds, caliber .40. 

Lozver. Rifle made by James Woods about 1810. Caliber .45, weight 9 pounds. 
Rifle is still in perfect condition, and gives accurate targets. Used by the present 
owner for hunting in 1917. 

from half an ounce to a full ounce in weight. On the right side, 
of the stock of the rifle was a little brass patch box, in which there 
was kept a number of circular patches of greased linen or leather. 
The powder was kept in a powder horn, usually a steer horn hollowed 
out thin, and often elaborately and artistically engraved and carved. 
The powder was poured from this horn, sometimes into a measure, 
and sometimes into the palm of the hand, and the amount gauged. 
It was then emptied into the muzzle of the rifle, and a greased patch 
centered over the muzzle. A bullet was placed over this patch and 
shoved into the bore with the thumb, the rifle being held perpendicularly 



THE HISTORY OF THE RIFLE IN AMERICA 5 

all the while, the butt resting on the ground. Then the light hickory 
ramrod was drawn from the thimbles under the barrel, the concave 
head was placed on the bullet, and the lubricated ball slid down the 
bore until it rested on the powder charge. Then the ramrod was 
flung or " wanged " down the bore a couple of times, thus flattening 
the ball somewhat, and upsetting it so that it filled the bore to the 
bottom of the rifling, thus shutting off the escape of gas around it. 
The ramrod was returned to its thimbles, a few grains of powder 
carefully placed in the pan of the lock, and the rifle was ready to 
fire. A skillful rifleman could perform this operation of loading in 
about 30 seconds. It is told of some of the early pioneers that they 
were so skillful that they were able to load their rifles on a run. 
While the rifle is not an American invention, as many have sup- 
posed, yet it is believed that the Pennsylvania Dutch should be given 
the credit of first developing it into an efficient weapon for sport 
and war. 

It is interesting to note just what these old rifles were capable of. 
One of these rifles made by Rosser of Lancaster, Pa., in 1739 and at 
present in the possession of Mr. John Dillon of Philadelphia, was 
tested by the Remi.ngton-U. M. C. Co. at their factory several years 
ago with the following results : 

Rosser flint lock rifle, made in Lancaster, Pa., 1739. Round ball, .32 inch diam- 
eter, weight 49 grains, powder charge 22 grains of black powder. 

Average velocity over 53 feet 1.305 feet per second 

Muzzle velocity 1,483 feet per second 

Muzzle energy 239 ft. lbs. 

Velocity at 100 yards 850 feet per second 

Energy at 100 yards 79 ft. lbs. 

Velocity at 200 yards 617 feet per second 

Energy at 200 yards 41 ft. lbs. 

These rifles were not reliable at ranges over 150 yards, and were 
seldom used over 100 yards. Their best range was about 60 yards, 
and in their time a majority of rifle matches seem to have been held 
at that range. At that range a good shot with a good rifle could 
keep all his shots inside a circle about an inch and a half in diameter. 
In other words, they were about as accurate as our ordinary rifles 
of today, up to 100 yards, but are far surpassed by our best rifles, 
while as to power we can .best class them as being about on a par 
with our .25 Stevens rim-fire cartridge at short ranges. 

For a long time the Pennsylvania Germans were the only rifle- 
makers in America. History points to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, as 



6 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

being the birth-place of the rifle on these shores. The frontiersmen 
of Maryland, Virginia, and New York soon caught on to the superior 
qualities of the new weapon, and were not slow to adopt it. In 1750 
it was in very general use all along the Allegheny border. In our 
wars we first heard of its use in the attack on the French strong- 
hold of Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island, which was at that time 
the key to the French possessions in America. The Pennsylvania^ 
riflemen advanced against the fortress in trenches by sapping, and 
when near to the walls the precision of their rifles made it impossible 





Fig. 2 
Early American percussion lock rifles. 
Upper. Originally a flint lock made about 1780, and later converted into a per- 
cussion lock. Forty caliber, weight 8V2 pounds. Probably made in Reading, Pa. 
Lower. A more modern American rifle made by James Goulcher, Philadelphia, 
Pa., about 1865. Caliber .43, weight 11 pounds. 

for the Frenchmen to serve their cannon. The rifle was practically un- 
known in New England until the frontiersmen of Pennsylvania and 
Virginia arrived at the siege of Boston in the Revolution. The first 
troops levied by the Continental Congress were six companies of rifle- 
men from Pennsylvania, two from Maryland, and two from Virginia, 
which joined the main army at Cambridge in August, 1776. These 
companies consisted of three officers and seventy-seven enlisted men 
each, and were recruited entirely from frontiersmen. They were 
armed with rifles, which each man provided himself, and were clad 



THE HISTORY OF THE RIFLE IN AMERICA 7 

in buckskin. At the very start they distinguished themselves on the 
march to Cambridge by covering this distance, 550 miles, in 22 days 
without the loss of a single man. During the Revolution, the Con- 
gress entered into contract with several riflemakers in the South 
to furnish a small number of these arms for our troops, but as a rule 
the rifles in use in the Revolution were the private property of the 
men carrying them. It was not until 1819 that the United States took 
up the manufacture of a rifle for the army. It is thought, but not 
known positively, that some of these rifles were made at the Springfield 
Armory. This model 1819 rifle was a flint lock, muzzle loader of 
.54 caliber, shooting a round ball, 32 to the pound, and a charge of 
100 grains of black powder. Its weight was 9.203 pounds, and its 
length without bayonet was 51.31 inches. — - — ' 

Shortly after the close of the Revolution, a Scottish clergyman named 
Alexander J. Forsyth invented the percussion-cap system of igniting 
the powder charge. This noteworthy improvement took quite a while 
to reach our shores, and it was in fact not until 1842 that the percus- 
sion lock and cap came into general use in this country, although quite 
a number of privately made arms were constructed with this lock 
several years before this date. The English army adopted percussion 
ignition for their Brunswick rifle in 1835. About this time the ex- 
ploration and settling of the West started, and gradually there were 
developed two distinctly American types of muzzle-loading, percussion- 
cap rifles. One of these was the well-known Kentucky rifle, an 
extremely long rifle of small bore. The Eastern rifleman demanded 
a small-bore arm in order that he might be able to carry a large 
supply of ammunition on his journeys, which were usually made on 
foot, carrying everything on the back. Thus the Kentucky rifle was 
sometimes known as a " pea rifle," because it fired a ball about the 
size of a pea, about .32 to .38 caliber. Usually these rifles when 
new were about .32 caliber, but as the bore became worn and rusty 
the owner would take it to the maker and have it rebored, and a 
new bullet mould made, and so the older the rifle the larger the bore. 
The barrel varied in length from about 36 inches to 48 inches, and 
was very heavy, making the total weight of the rifle from 12 to 15 
pounds. It had a small stock, rifle butt-plate, and double set trig- 
gers. The forestock usually extended up to the muzzle, and contained 
the ramrod. The butt-plate, patch box, and trimmings were usually 
of brass, and often elaborately engraved. 

But this rifle did not suit the Western hunter, trapper, and explorer. 



8 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

The bore was not sufficiently large for effective work on the larger 
Western game, such as elk, buffalo,, and grizzly bear. It lacked kill- 
ing power and it also lacked range. Moreover, the long barrel was 
very unwieldy on horseback. Economy in the weight of ammunition 
was not such a factor, as the Westerner usually had pack ponies for 
his transportation. So there was gradually evolved a Western type 
of rifle, reaching its perfection in the rifles made by the Hawken 
Brothers of St. Louis just before the Civil War. These weapons were 
of larger caliber, from .40 to .60 inch, and in later years fired a conical 
instead of a round ball. The barrel was much shorter, usually about 
30 inches. The stock was much heavier, to stand the rougher service, 
and the forearm often extended only half-way up the barrel. The 
other features of the Kentucky rifle were however retained. 

Improvements in rifles came rapidly during the first half of the nine- 
teenth century, practically all being directed towards a breech system 
of loading. In fact in 1808, only a year after the invention of the 
percussion cap, patent rights were granted to a French gunmaker for 
a paper cartridge to the base of which a paper fulminate cap was 
attached. The cartridge was inserted from the breech, and the firing 
of the charge was brought about by piercing the cap with a needle 
which was impelled forward by a spring. Most of the early attempts 
Lo produce a breech-loading gun, however, resulted in developing a 
great and grave distrust for any and all systems of loading from 
the breech end, and it was not until our Civil War was w r ell under way 
that we witnessed the production of a really effective and safe breech 
loader. The first breech-loading rifle to be adopted by the army of any 
nation was the well-known " Needle gun," which was invented about 
1839 by Dreyse, a German, and was at first intended as a sporting 
arm. The first model suffered badly from some of the same defects 
that had caused all its predecessors to be rejected, namely the escape 
of gas and flame at the breech end, but the Prussians became interested 
in it in 1842, and after many experiments and improvements adopted 
it in 1848. Meanwhile our own inventors had been active, and about 
1855 saw the invention and development of the first Sharps breech- 
loading rifle. This arm had a vertically sliding breech block, some- 
what like that on the present Winchester single-shot rifle. The cart- 
ridge was made of a paper cylinder, carrying the conical bullet at the 
forward end and the powder charge in rear. The breech block was 
dropped down and the cartridge inserted from the rear. When the 
breech block was pulled up into place again it shaved the paper off 



THE HISTORY OF THE RIFLE IN AMERICA 9 

the rear end of the cartridge, thus exposing the powder to the face of 
the breech block. The breech block carried a nipple and a flash hole 
through it. After the breech was closed, a percussion cap was placed 
on the nipple and the rifle was ready to tire. This Sharps rifle was 
issued to a few British regiments for experimental purposes in 1857, 
and shortly after the start of our Civil War its issue in carbine form 
was begun to the Union Cavalry. It also became very popular as a 
sporting arm, particularly in the West. The paper cartridge, how- 
ever, was quickly supplanted by the brass shell, to which the Sharps 
and many other rifles were quickly adapted. During the Civil War 
repeating rifles also began to be in evidence, one of the first of these 
being the Spencer, which was patented in i860. This rifle had a lever 
formed of the trigger guard like the Sharps, but the breech block 
rotated downward and back on a hinge. The magazine was in the butt 
stock. A number of these were used in the Civil War, and also sent 
into the West at the close of the w r ar. The Spencer was quickly fol- 
lowed in 1866 by the Henry rifle, which is the predecessor of our pres- 
ent Winchester repeater. The success of the Henry rifle was very 
rapid, and it quickly drove most of the other rifles off the market, 
many of the old Spencer rifles getting into the hands of the plains 
Indians. One rifle to retain its popularity for a long time, however, 
was the old Sharps single shot, now adapted to a metallic cartridge 
and considerably improved. One reason for this was the powerful 
cartridge which it carried, all the first of the repeating rifles being made 
for short cartridges of small power, and not well adapted to the 
larger Western game or for long range. The Sharps was the rifle 
that killed off the buffalo ; one model of the Sharps in fact being 
called the " buffalo gun." This was .45 or .50 caliber, with a very 
heavy octagon barrel, and outside hammer. The first of the Sharps 
rifles had outside hammers very similar to the old muzzle-loading ham- 
mer, but towards the end of its career the Sharps Rifle Company 
made a single-shot, hammerless rifle, the firing pin and mainspring 
being contained in the sliding breech-block. This excellent rifle found 
its way into the hands of a few Westerners, and also became a popular, 
long-range, target weapon. It carried probably the most powerful 
black-powder cartridge ever designed in America, a .45 caliber, the 
long, straight, brass shell containing as much as 120 grains of black 
powder, and the paper-patched bullet weighing 550 grains. 

The Henry repeating rifle, which was so popular in those days 
(1870), used a .44 caliber, rim-fire cartridge, containing 28 grains 



10 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



^8 



v 





Fig. 3 
Arms of our late frontier. In order from top to bottom : 
Sharp's buffalo rifle, caliber .45-120-550. Weight 17 pounds. 
Sharp's rifle, Creedmoor Model for long range target shooting. 
Sharp's-Borchart hammerless rifle, semi-military model. 
Spencer rifle, caliber- .56-44 rim fire. . 

Henry repeating rifle, caliber .44 rim fire, from which the Winchester rifle 

was developed. - . .... , 

Winchester carbine, Model 1866, caliber .44 rim fire. The first Winchester 

rifle made. 
Spencer carbine, caliber .56 rim fire. 



THE HISTORY OF THE RIFLE IN AMERICA n 

of powder and 200 grains of lead. In 1866 the Winchester Repeating 
Arms Company was organized, this company purchasing the Henry 
Arms Company and the Spencer Rifle Company, and continuing the 
manufacture of the Henry rifle until quite recent times. In 1873 the 
Winchester Company placed on the market the Winchester Model 
1873 rifle, probably the most famous rifle produced in America, and 
the rifle which has made the name " Winchester " famous throughout 
the world. This rifle was very similar to the Henry rifle, in fact it was 
made under the Henry patent, but it was very much better made, 
so much so that it was a thoroughly reliable arm. Until its advent 
repeaters were not considered weapons that could be relied upon un- 
der all circumstances, and many hunters, trappers, and explorers still 
stuck to their old single shots. But the Winchester Model 1873 prac- 
tically drove all the single shots to the wall. It was first adapted to 
the cartridge known as the .44 W. C. F., or .44-40; a center-fire cart- 
ridge containing 40 grains of black powder, and a flat-nosed, conical 
bullet of 200 grains. While this cartridge was quite a little more 
powerful than any charge which had hitherto been adapted to a re- 
peating rifle, it was not considered powerful enough by sportsmen for 
Western game, and this le.d to the manufacture of the Winchester 
Model 1876, or " Centennial Model," adapted to much more powerful 
cartridges, namely the .45-75-350 W. C. F. ; .45-60-300 W. C. F. ; and 
.40-60-210 W. C. F. About the same time the Model 1873 was adapted 
to three other cartridges; the .38-40-180; the .32-20-115, and the .22 
long rim fire. The Centennial model had practically the same breech 
action as the Model 1873. 

We must now turn to the development of the military rifle im- 
mediately following the Civil War. The first breech-loading rifle 
manufactured at the Springfield Armory was that known as the Model 
1866. This had the famous old " Springfield " action with hinged 
breech-block. It used a .50-caliber, center-fire, brass cartridge, con- 
taining 70 grains of black powder and a 450-grain, grooved, lubricated, 
conical bullet. In 1873 this rifle was improved a little, and the caliber 
reduced to .45-70-405. Later the weight of the bullet was increased 
to 500 grains ; the .405 grain bullet, however, being retained for use 
in the carbine of this model. In all, ten models of the single-shot 
Springfield rifle have been manufactured at the Springfield Armory, 
each being a slight improvement over its immediate predecessor. The 
last one was the Model 1888, containing the rod bayonet. The 
.45-caliber Springfield was a most reliable and effective weapon. Its 



12 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

breech action could be operated so quickly that, until the advent of 
smokeless powder, our army saw no need of adopting a repeating rifle. 
With the .500-grain bullet this rifle was quite accurate up to 800 
yards, but the angle of fall at 1000 yards was too great for good target 
work at that range. My first experience at military target shooting 
was with this arm, and my old score books show scores up to 48 at 
500 yards and 43 at 600 yards. 

Almost all important improvements and inventions in firearms have 
been made primarily for military purposes, and have then been adapted 
to sporting arms. Having developed the repeating rifle, army officers 
found that the rapidity of fire of which these rifles were capable could 
not be fully used on the battlefield owing to the great cloud of smoke 
which soon arose, obscuring the hostile target. Hence there came a 
demand for a powder which would burn without so much smoke. An- 
other reason for desiring such a powder was that with black powder 
a force at once disclosed its exact location as soon as it opened fire. 
The development of smokeless powder, like the development of the rifle, 
is more in the nature of a gradual evolution and improvement than 
the invention of a single man. Serious experiment with smokeless 
powders dates from 1846, when Schonbein reported that he had dis- 
covered a cotton powder which he thought might be used for guns, 
which would burn without smoke and which left very little residue 
behind it. A year later Dr. Hartig discovered that it was possible to 
dissolve guncotton in acetic ether, and it would then, without altering 
its chemical state, become a clear stiff" jelly when the excess of ether 
had evaporated. If the ether was allowed to evaporate slowly and en- 
tirely, a white residue remained behind which had the same property 
as the original guncotton, but exploded much more slowly than gun- 
cotton. Here, then, we have the first indication that the rate of com- 
bustion of guncotton could be controlled. In 1864, Captain Schultz, a 
German, invented a smokeless powder, which was originally made from 
disks of wood, boiled in soda and steamed for many hours, and then 
nitrated. This was the original Schultz shotgun powder, which, in 
an improved form, is still on the market, but is not suitable for use in 
rifles. The first man to make a smokeless nitro powder suitable for 
use in rifles was Frederick Volkmann, who patented a powder in 1871 
which he called " Collodin," which would stand immersion in water, 
and with which the speed of combustion could be controlled by the 
degree to which the solution of the grains in ether alcohol was allowed 
to proceed. About this time it became apparent also that a flat tra- 



THE HISTORY OF THE RIFLE IN AMERICA 13 

jectory was very desirable from a military point of view, and that 
this could be obtained only from a very small bore, long bullet, and 
large charge of powder. The initiative in this respect came from 
Switzerland. Major Rubin of the Swiss Ordnance Department in 
1883 invented the rifle which bears his name and also designed the 
cartridge adapted to it. This cartridge had a bullet measuring only 
.295 inch, and a very large charge of powder. In the meantime a 
British committee had been appointed to select a new rifle for the 
army. They went very carefully into the matter and adopted a car- 
tridge of .303 caliber, having a bullet with a cupro-nickel jacket and a 
lead core. The powder charge was a compressed cylinder of black 
powder weighing 70 grains. The velocity of the cartridge was a 
little over 1800 feet per second, or about 400 feet more than it had 
been possible to obtain from the large caliber rifles. The cartridge 
was not a success as the development was really in advance of the 
black powder used. However, even before it could be condemned a 
remedy was found in the new smokeless powder. The black powder 
in this small bore gave so much fouling that accuracy was practically 
impossible, but the smokeless powder gave almost no fouling and 
permitted the velocity to be increased to a little over 2000 feet per 
second. All the other European nations quickly saw the advantage of 
this new arm and were not slow to change their armament. The United 
States was among the last to do so. In 1892 the Ordnance De- 
partment adopted a foreign rifle, the Krag-Jorgensen, for the regular 
army, and the manufacture of it was commenced at the Springfield 
Armory. It used a cartridge having a bullet measuring .308 inch 
and weighing 220 grains. The bullet was jacketed with cupro-nickel, 
and had a lead core. The powder charge was about 40 grains of a 
smokeless powder, giving a velocity of about 2000 feet per second. 
The issue of this rifle was restricted entirely to the regular army. 
In 1898 a number of minor improvements were made, and the Krag- 
Jorgensen rifles seen at the present day are almost all of them what is 
officially called the United States magazine rifle, Model 1898. 

The first high-power sporting rifle to be placed on the American 
market was the Winchester single-shot rifle, adapted to the .30-40 U. 
S. cartridge (the cartridge used in the Model 1898 rifle). It appeared 
on the market in April, 1894. In March, 1896, the Winchester re- 
peating rifle, Model 1895, also handling this cartridge, was adver- 
tised for sale, and we now pass from the realm of history into the 
consideration of modern American rifles. 



14 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



In this little sketch of the development of the rifle in America I 
have been forced to omit reference to many excellent and celebrated 
arms which have now passed into history, such for instance as the 
Ballard, the flying-lock Remington, and many others. To refer to 
and describe them all would require a whole volume, and I have there- 




Fig. 4 

Ballard rifle, a favorite of twenty years ago, and still preferred by Schuetzen 

riflemen for 200 -yard target shooting 

fore preferred to give only a short and truthful sketch which would 
show briefly the part that the United States has had in the develop- 
ment of the rifle. 



CHAPTER II 
THE A B C OF RIFLE BALLISTICS 

A RIFLE is a gun intended to be carried by one man and fired from 
the shoulder. It differs from the shotgun or smooth bore in 
that the surface of the bore is cut with a number of grooves. These 
grooves are given a spiral direction in the bore, and this has the effect 
of rotating a bullet forced through the bore by the explosion or ex- 
pansion of the powder gases. This rotation of the bullet continues 
after it has left the barrel, the bullet revolving on its longer axis as it 
travels through the air. Thus the bullet, during its flight, goes to sleep 
like a well-spun, boy's top, and this causes it to fly accurately, and point 
to the front, for a much longer distance than would be the case were 
it shot from a smooth-bore gun. 

The bore of American rifles varies in diameter from .22-inch to 
.50-inch, and in designating the size of the bore of a certain rifle its 
diameter is usually given in hundredths or thousandths of an inch, 
and this measurement is called caliber. Thus we have a .22-caliber 
rifle, a .30-caliber rifle, a .405-caliber rifle, and a .50-caliber rifle, and 
so on. It is usual to designate as the caliber of a certain rifle the 
diameter of the smooth bore through the barrel before it is cut with 
the grooves or rifling. The grooves of a rifle vary from .002-inch to 
.006-inch in depth, and are usually from four to eight in number. 
The raised portion of the original surface of the bore between the 
grooves is called the lands. Thus a .30-caliber rifle is first bored out to 
a smooth, even bore, .30-inch in diameter. The barrel is then placed 
in a rifling machine and the grooves are cut in it. In the .30 caliber 
these grooves are usually .004-inch deep, so that this makes the in- 
side diameter of the barrel from the bottom of one groove to the bottom 
of the opposite groove .308-inch. In England the diameter of the 
rifle's bore is usually given in thousandths of an inch instead of 
hundredths, thus what we would call a .45-caliber rifle they would term 
a .450-bore rifle. On the continent of Europe still another nomen- 
clature is in use; that is, the diameter in millimeters instead of 

iS 



16 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

inches, and thus we have foreign rifles of 6.5 mm., 7 mm., 7.65 mm., 8 
mm., 9 mm., 9.3 mm., 10 mm., and so on. 

The number of grooves in the bore of a rifle varies between four 
and eight. The twist of the rifling throughout the barrel varies be- 
tween one complete turn and 6 l / 2 inches of the barrel's length, and one 
turn in 60 inches. The longer the bullet in proportion to its diameter, 
and the slower the velocity with which it travels, the quicker must be 
the twist to spin the bullet so as to keep it point to the front, or to 
maintain its gyrostatic stability. 

The breech end of the bore is enlarged and shaped so as to form a 
chamber in which the cartridge fits when the rifle is loaded and ready- 
to fire. 

The breech is sealed or blocked to the rear by the breech block or 
bolt, which supports the head of the cartridge, and sustains the force 
of the explosion. The block or bolt is pierced in the center to contain 
the firing pin. The firing pin, pulled back, compresses the mainspring, 
and is held in this position by means of the sear. When the sear is 
depressed by the pulling of the trigger, the firing pin is released, and 
carried forward by the mainspring, and its end juts out through the 
hole in the face of the block or bolt, striking the primer a blow, in- 
denting it, and firing the cartridge. 

The cartridge consists of bullet, shell or case, powder, and primer. 
The bullet is conical in shape (spherical bullets are now obsolete) 
and is made of either a lead and tin alloy, or of a lead and tin alloy 
with a jacket of cupro-nickel or copper. Its diameter is the same as 
the groove diameter of the bore, or very slightly smaller. The bullet 
is seated in the forward portion or neck "of the shell. The shell is 
made of brass, and contains the powder. On the center of its base is 
a primer pocket, in which is seated the primer. The primer is a 
brass or copper cap, containing the fulminate and an anvil. When 
the firing pin strikes the primer, the fulminate is compressed cr 
crushed between the cap and anvil. This causes a spark or flash to 
pass through the flash hole in the primer pocket into the interior of the 
shell where the powder is contained. The powder is ignited, and 
burning, produces a quick, powerful, and elastic gas, which forces the 
bullet ahead of it and out through the bore. Rifles vary in the velocity 
with which the bullet leaves the muzzle {muzzle velocity or initial 
velocity, abbreviated M. V.) from 900 to 3400 feet per second. 

If the bullet, after leaving the muzzle, were subjected to no other 
forces than the explosion of the powder, it would continue to move 



THE A B C OF RIFLE BALLISTICS 



17 



forward with unchanged velocity in prolongation of the axis of the 
bore, passing over equal spaces in equal times. But the air displaced 
by the bullet offers a resistance which reduces the velocity of the 
bullet, causing the space over which it passes in equal times con- 
tinually to diminish. Thus if, neglecting the resistance of the air, a 
bullet would reach at the end of one second a point A, this resistance 
would cause it to reach only some point A', and at the end of two, 
three, and four seconds, only to reach points B', C, and D', instead of 
B, C, and D. (See Fig. 5.) The diminished velocity at any point is 
called the remaining velocity at that point, and is measured by the space 
in feet which the bullet would pass over in the next second if the 
velocity suffered no change. 

On leaving the muzzle the bullet is also subjected to the force of 




Fig. 5 

gravity, which causes it to fall about 16 feet in the first second of 
flight, 48 feet in the second, or 64 feet in two seconds, 80 feet in the 
third, of 144 feet in three seconds, etc. ; the fall in any second being 
about 32 feet more than in the next preceding. The fall due to grav- 
ity is not influenced by the velocity of the bullet, being the same as if 
the bullet were dropped from a state of rest. Thus the bullet, at the 
end of one second, instead of being at A', will be at A", 16 feet below 
A'. At the end of two seconds it will be at B", at the end of three 
seconds at C", etc. The resistance of the air reduces the velocity 
of the bullet's fall, but this effect is not important at moderate ranges. 

The curved path followed by the bullet in its flight through the air 
under the combined action of these forces is called its " trajectory," and 
is represented by the curved line in Fig. 5. When we speak of the 
trajectory of the bullet we mean its path through the air from the 
muzzle of the rifle to the point where it hits the target. 

In order to be prepared to discuss and compare the trajectories of 
various rifles, the reader should be familiar with certain terms used 



18 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

in conjunction with the trajectory. Thus, the angle of departure is 
that between the ground and the tangent to the trajectory where it 
leaves the muzzle of the rifle. The line of sight is a straight line pass- 
ing from the pupil of the markman's eye through the rear and 
front sights, to the point on the target where the rifle is aimed. The 
angle of elevation is that between the line of sight and the tangent to 
the trajectory where it leaves the muzzle of the rifle. The ordinate 
of any point in the trajectory is its vertical distance above the line of 
sight. In giving ordinates it is customary to give them for every 
ioo yards of range, measured on the line of sight. The trajectory 
reaches its greatest height, or highest ordinate, in one-half the time 
of flight ; hence, since the velocity continually decreases, this is more 
than one-half the range distant from the muzzle of the rifle. The 
range is the distance, measured on the line of sight, from the muzzle 
of the rifle to the target. The angle of fall is that between the ground 
and the tangent to the trajectory where it meets the ground. 

The point where the bullet strikes the target is called the point 
of impact. A number of shots striking a target are called a group. 
The center of the group is called the center of impact. If a rifle be 
fired for a series of shots with a constant point of aim and a constant 
sight adjustment, the diameter of the circle which will include all of the 
shots gives the measure of accuracy of that rifle and ammunition. An 
accurate rifle and ammunition produce a small group. A rifle is said 
to be accurate when, at a given range, its dispersion does not exceed 
three minutes of angle ; that is, when the circle which will include 
all the shots has not a greater diameter than 3 inches at 100 yards, 6 
inches at 200 yards, 9 inches at 300 yards, 15 inches at 500 yards, 30 
inches at 1000 yards, etc. 

The energy of a bullet is its ability to perform work, that is its ability 
to strike a blow, or to overcome the resistance of the air. It is meas- 
ured in foot pounds, and decreases as the range increases and the 
velocity diminishes. Thus we have muzzle energy and remaining 
energy. The energy increases with the weight of the bullet and with 
its velocity. The amount of energy remaining at any range not only 
depends primarily upon these features, but also on the ability of the 
bullet to maintain its velocity, that is to overcome the resistance of the 
air. A long, heavy bullet (i.e., one with great sectional density) main- 
tains its velocity better than a short, light one. A bullet with a long, 
fine point maintains velocity better than a blunt-pointed bullet. 

The recoil or kick is the movement of the rifle to the rear at the 



THE A B C OF RIFLE BALLISTICS 19 

instant it is fired. It depends upon the weight of the rifle, the weight 
of the bullet, the initial velocity, the caliber of the rifle, and the 
rapidity of burning of the powder. The ability of the shoulder to 
stand recoil limits the power and caliber of the rifle to be fired from 
the shoulder. 



CHAPTER III 

THE NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN 

RIFLES 

THE American nomenclature and classification of rifles and rifle 
appurtenances is rather confusing to one not acquainted with the 
same. At the same time a knowledge of it is very essential to the un- 
derstanding of the subject as set forth in this and other works on the 
American rifle. The system is the more difficult because there is no 
system to it. It is the outcome of the trade language as set forth in 
the catalogues of five or six of our leading rifle and cartridge manu- 
facturers, together with a number of names and classifications, partly 
slang, which have come into general use among the riflemen of 
America. 

American rifles are divided into a number of classes. As regards 
caliber we have small-bore rifles, and large bores or calibers, the divid- 
ing line being placed usually at .35 caliber, that rifle being included 
among the small bores. As regards power, we have high-power and 
low-power rifles, also called high velocity and low velocity. The di- 
viding line being placed at 1750 feet per second velocity, all rifles having 
velocities over that figure being in the high-power class. Of late there 
has been a tendency to call rifles having a velocity of over 2400 f. s. 
" high intensity " rifles, to distinguish them from those whose velocity 
runs around the 2000 f. s. mark. 

As regards their action or mechanism, we have a large number of 
names and classifications. Single-shot rifles are those firing but a 
single shot at a time, and having no magazine or container for cart- 
ridges other than the one in the chamber. Repeating rifles, strictly 
speaking, are those having a tubular magazine under the barrel, con- 
taining a number of cartridges, the operation of the breech mechanism 
ejecting the fired shell and loading a fresh cartridge. Magazine rifles 
are those in which the magazine containing the reserve of cartridges 
is located under the bolt or breech-lock. Lever-action rifles are those 
repeaters and single shots which are actuated by means of a lever 
under the grip, usually an extension of the trigger guard. Bolt-action 

20 



NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION 21 

rifles are those that are actuated by a bolt, somewhat like a door bolt, 
the bolt handle being pulled up and backward to throw out the empty 
shell, and then pushed forward and down to load the fresh cartridge 
and lock the rifle. The older types of lever-action rifles are almost 
all repeaters, but we have also several lever actions with the magazine 
under the breech-block. Bolt-action rifles are usually military arms, 
or military actions converted and remodelled for sporting use. Auto- 
loading rifles are those in which the recoil is utilized to reload the 
rifle; the trigger, however, requiring to be pulled each time to fire a 
shot. An automatic rifle is one in which the recoil loads and fires 
the rifle, the rifle continuing to load and fire as long as the trigger is held 
back. There are no automatic shoulder rifles made, all rifles of this 
type requiring a tripod or other rest, and are intended entirely for 
military purposes, their weight precluding their being used as shoulder 
arms. 

The principal manufacturers of rifles in this country at present, in 
addition to the Ordnance Department of the United States Army, and 
certain firms manufacturing government arms under contract, are: 

The Winchester Repeating Arms Company. 

The Remington Arms-Union Metallic Cartridge Company. 

The Savage Arms Corporation. 

The Newton Arms Company. 
An examination of the catalogues of these companies will give one 
a very clear idea of the names and classification of the various modern 
American rifles. 

When it comes to cartridges, the nomenclature is also rather con- 
fusing. Upon the introduction of the breech-loading cartridge the 
usual method of naming and distinguishing between the various cart- 
ridges was to give three figures, the first being the caliber, the second 
the number of grains of black powder contained in the shell, and the 
third the weight in grains of the bullet. Thus we have the .32-40-165, 
being a cartridge of .32 caliber, containing 40 grains of black powder, 
and a bullet weighing 165 grains. Sometimes the name of the maker 
of the rifle using the cartridge was coupled with the cartridge, thus 
we have the .40-70-330 Winchester. In some cartridges the fulminate 
is contained in the rim of the shell instead of in a primer. These 
are usually small cartridges, and are called " rim fire," the cartridges 
containing the regular primer being called " center fire." We find a 
large number of cartridges called " W. R. F." and " W. C. F.," mean- 
ing Winchester Rim Fire, and Winchester Center Fire. Among these 



22 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

are the .22 W. R. F., the .44 W. C. F., the .33 W. C. F., the .25 Stevens 
Rim Fire, etc. The United States Government cartridges represent 
again another system of nomenclature, those for the Model 1898 rifle 
being called ".30 cal. Model 1898 Ball Cartridge." This same cart- 
ridge, by the way, is called ".30 U. S." in the Winchester catalogue, 
and is popularly called the .30-40-220. The cartridge for the U. S. 
Magazine Rifle, caliber .30, Model 1903, the present service arm of the 
United States, is officially called the " Ball Cartridge, caliber .30, Model 
1906." 1 

In recent years the tendency has been to give the caliber of the 
cartridge in thousandths of an inch instead of in hundredths of an inch. 
Thus we have the .405 W. C. F., the .303 Savage, and the .351 Win- 
chester Self-Loading. Also lately we note the appearance of two 
cartridges which fail to follow previous rules, namely the ".22 Savage 
Hi-power," and the .250-3000 Savage, the latter being a .25-caliber 
rifle having a velocity of 3000 feet per second. 

Cartridges are still further distinguished by the names " soft point " 
and " full jacketed," the former being those whose bullets are jacketed 
around the base and side only, the lead core at the point being exposed 
to cause them to mushroom and expand on game and thus give a more 
fatal wound. The full jacketed bullet is completely covered with the 
jacket except a small portion in the center of the base where the 
lead core was inserted in the jacket, and such bullets are intended for 
military and target shooting and not for game shooting. Most cart- 
ridges are made with both soft point and full-jacketed bullets, and in 
purchasing them one should indicate which variety he desires. The 
soft point should always be specified for game shooting, except that 
sometimes riflemen prefer to carry full- jacketed bullets in addition to 
the soft point, the former being used on medium-sized game where 
as destructive a bullet as the soft point is not desired, as for example 
where one wishes as little mutilation of the skin as possible on account 
of future mounting of the specimen. 

1 The present service arm was designed in 1903, and adopted to the Model 1903 
cartridge having a 220-grain, blunt-nose bullet. In 1906 all these rifles were al- 
tered to use a new cartridge with 150-grain, pointed bullet, the new cartridge 
being called the Model 1906. The Model 1903 cartridge then became obsolete, 
but the rifle retained the date of its design. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE AMERICAN RIFLES 

THE American breech-loading rifle dates from the Civil War. 
An enormous number of various models have been produced 
since that time. At one time or another American factories have 
made rifles for almost all the nations of South America, southern 
Europe, and Asia, as well as supplied the trade, both military and 
sporting, in this country. Of recent years the change to smokeless 
powder has made a majority of these weapons obsolete, and many 
new arms have taken their place. The rifles described here are those 
at present being manufactured, both by our government arsenals and 
private manufacturers. Some few rifles have also been described, the 
manufacture of which stopped at the start of the great war, owing 
to the factories which made them being turned over entirely to the 
manufacture of munitions ; but these arms are still being used in large 
quantities and thus a description of them seems desirable. These in- 
clude mostly the products of the Stevens and Marlin companies. 

Under the head of each arm I have given something of its history, 
its use, its operation, and rules for dismounting its action. I have also 
included in most cases an opinion as to its worth. This opinion is 
mine alone, and is simply based on my experience, together with the 
published experience of other riflemen, I having read and tabulated 
practically every bit of literature published on the rifle in this country 
for the past twenty-five years. I have tried to treat each rifle fairly. 
In the ten years that I spent experimenting and gathering data for 
this work I have owned, fired, and tested almost every rifle listed 
and for the majority of them I have only praise. While our arms 
are almost without exception made by machinery in large quantities, 
and sometimes at great speed, yet they compare very favorably with 
the hand-made foreign product, in many cases actually excelling them 
in all essentials. 

This chapter may be said to deal essentially with rifle actions, the 
other parts being more fully described in subsequent chapters. Reli- 
ability in the functioning of the action is an absolute requirement in 

23 



24 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

a rifle. If it be a magazine arm, it must surely extract and eject the 
fired shell, load and lock the loaded cartridge, and surely fire it. It 
must do this in all weather, and in all positions. Also it must be safe. 
As regards the latter requirement, it may be said that every Ameri- 
can rifle has an ample margin of safety for the cartridges it is designed 
to handle. If one adapts a certain rifle to a cartridge other than that 
for which it was designed it behoves him to know what he is about, 
and the same may be said when one attempts to improve the ballistics 
by loading the cartridges with a different charge from the standard. 

The Mauser action is the most reliable form of breech mechanism 
that has ever been designed for repeating rifles, and it is doubtful if it 
will ever be improved much. The United States rifles, models of 
1903 and 1917, the Savage high-power, bolt-action rifle, and the New- 
ton rifle all have Mauser actions, some slightly modified, but still re- 
taining all the essentials. The Mauser action is operated by means of 
a bolt. The mechanical design is such that this action has more 
power to insert and positively extract shells than any other. A force 
of 25 pounds exerted on the bolt handle of the U. S. Model 1903 rifle to 
turn it up or down results in a pull or pressure being exerted on the 
cartridge of 186.4 pounds, friction being considered. If friction is 
neglected, the pressure on the head of the cartridge exerted by a 
25-pOund pressure on the bolt handle is 216 pounds. This will surely 
insert or extract a shell slightly larger than normal, or will take care 
of dirt, mud, sand, rusty chamber, etc. Also this action can be entirely 
and easily dismounted without tools for cleaning, and this is a 
great advantage with a rifle which is to be subjected to hard usage in 
the field, and particularly with one which is to be used in the tropics 
or the arctic regions. With proper ammunition there is absolutely no 
chance of this action jamming or failing as long as the user takes 
pains fully to operate the mechanism — that is, always to open and 
pull the bolt clear back, and then fully close it without false motion. 

The other rifle actions made in the United States, while they have 
not the absolute reliability of the Mauser action, may be regarded as 
perfectly reliable for all practical purposes, as the chance for any 
trouble is so remote that we can afford to take the chance if we prefer 
any other type of action to the Mauser. 

As regards speed of fire, the bolt action may be regarded as the 
slowest of all repeating or magazine rifles. Next would come the 
lever actions, followed by the sliding, forearm actions, and the auto- 
matics; the latter being, of course, the fastest operated actions. Yet 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 25 

the bolt action can be operated plenty fast enough for any practical 
use, or for aimed fire. With a rifle which recoils to any extent it takes 
time to recover from the shock and the unbalancing of the body before 
one can aim steadily and accurately again, and during this recovery 
there is plenty of time to operate the bolt action or any other of our 
American repeating actions. 

A bolt action has features which are objected to by certain sports- 
men. It is very difficult for a left-handed shooter to operate it with 
any speed. The usual safety on the cocking piece at the rear of the 
bolt makes this action rather slow in getting off the first shot when 
the rifle is locked, although this objection is fully met in the new 
Savage high-power, bolt action with its shotgun type of safety. The 
other actions — lever, trombone, and automatic — have several faults 
to which attention must be called. The majority of them require tools 
to dismount, and the operation takes considerable time. Hence they 
are not so liable to be kept in perfect working order inside as the 
bolt actions, and if anything happens it is harder to get at the trouble. 
All of them have a certain spring in the breech mechanism, owing 
to the materials of which they are made and the design of breech 
support. This spring is very evident when we come to use them 
with modern cartridges giving breech pressures of 45,000 pounds 
per square inch and over. The fired shell is expanded and lengthened 
so much that it cannot be reloaded. As a result of this spring, after 
a long period of use, say after the firing of 7000 to 10,000 rounds, and 
in some cases after a much shorter period of use, there comes a per- 
manent springing back of the breech-bolt. The breech of the rifle 
does not close up as tight as it should, and the head space between the 
face of the bolt and the head of the cartridge is sometimes increased 
to such an extent that the heads are blown off the shells, and gas 
escapes to the rear. In other words, the action is completely worn out. 
Riflemen are cautioned that this trouble will probably occur only 
with rifles using very heavy charges, and after long years of use. 
Such actions, as a rule, should not be relied upon to wear out more 
than one barrel, whereas the bolt actions, if properly cared for, are 
almost everlasting. I have one which has worn out six .30-40 barrels 
and is still in perfect condition. 

And yet, despite the faults that I have called attention to, the 
ordinary sportsman and hunter will have precious little fault to find 
with our lever action rifles. They will go on year after year giving 
him splendid service without a single hitch. And there is much in 



26 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

their hang, feel, method of operation, arid make up which appeals to 
the American. There is no bolt handle sticking out to' one side and 
often in the way. There are no open parts to collect dirt and pine 
needles. The hammer shows at all times whether the rifle is ready or 
safe, and the hammer can be brought to full cock as the rifle is tossed 
to the shoulder without loss of time. When the rifle is grasped with 
the right hand in the firing position the hammer, lever, trigger, and 
grip seem to be in just the right position, and in the correct relation to 
each other, for the most efficient control and operation. 

For all ordinary uses every one of our rifles are perfectly safe and 
reliable. In fact they have such a margin in these respects that one 
might almost say they were fool proof. However, when it comes to 
special or extremely hard use, using heavy modern charges, using the 
rifle for hard service in unexplored regions, the tropics, or the arctic, 
the Mauser type of action demonstrates its superiority. 

WINCHESTER REPEATING RIFLE, MODEL 1873 

This was the first repeating rifle ever made to use center-fire cart- 
ridges, and the first really reliable repeater. The action is practically 
the same as the old Henry repeater which used a 44-caliber, rim-fire 
cartridge, and which was placed on the market by the Henry Arms 
Company in 1866, and afterwards made by the Winchester Com- 
pany. The 1873 rifle gained an enormous popularity which did not 
begin to wane until the introduction of the Winchester Model 1892 
rifle, a superior action to handle the same cartridges. Until a few 
years ago practically 70 per cent, of the game killed in the United 
States fell to this rifle. In the West the Model 1876 or Centennial 
Model Winchester, exactly similar to the 1873 but to handle heavier 
cartridges such as the 45-75-350 with bottle-necked shell, was very 
popular until the introduction of the Model 1866 rifle. 

The Model 1873 rifle is made for the .44 W. C. F„ .38 W. C. F. and 
.32-20 W. C. F. cartridges, and used to be made also for the .22 short 
and long cartridges. It is still on the market, being probably the 
oldest model rifle still being manufactured. Cartridges were trans- 
ferred from the tubular magazine to a position in front of the breech- 
bolt by means of a carrier block. The action had but one fault. The 
carrier block was just exactly long enough to receive the standard 
cartridge, and if a cartridge happened to be a little longer or shorter 
than standard it jammed the rifle. 

The Model 1873 ri ^ e m "st now be regarded as obsolete, but mention 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



27 



is made of it here because of its one-time practically universal use in 
America. The sectional cuts herewith explain its operation and method 
of taking the action apart and assembling. 



28 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 




Action closed 

To load the magazine. The magazine is loaded while the action is 
closed, as shown in Fig. I, by pressing down the spring cover on the 
right hand side of the receiver with the point of the cartridge, and in- 
serting the cartridge through the opening thus made. The opening is 
closed by the spring cover as soon as the cartridge is inserted. This 
operation is repeated until the magazine is filled. 




Action open 

To prepare to shoot. When it is desired to load, the finger lever 
B is thrown forward to the position shown in Fig. 2, and then returned 
to the position shown in Fig. 1. This motion throws out the shell or 
cartridge in the chamber, transfers a cartridge from the magazine to 
the chamber, cocks the hammer, and leaves the gun ready to fire when 
the trigger is pulled. The operation of loading is easily executed while 
the gun is at the hip, or at the shoulder, without taking the eye off the 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 29 

sights, thus enabling the shooter to fire as many shots as there are car- 
tridges in the magazine without removing the gun from the shoulder, 
or losing sight of the object shot at. 

To take out the barrel. Take out the two tipscrews and the maga- 
zine ring pin ; pull out the magazine tube and take off the forearm ; 
then, before unscrewing the barrel from the frame, the breech pin must 
be thrown back by moving the finger lever forward — otherwise, the 
attempt to unscrew it will break the extractor which withdraws the car- 
tridge and ruin the breech pin. 

To remove the breech pin. Model 1873. After removing the side 
plates and links, take out the link pin and retractor ; the firing-pin can 
then be pulled out with the fingers, first removing the hammer, or set- 
ting it at full cock. 

WINCHESTER REPEATING RIFLE, MODEL OF l886 

This is a tubular-magazine, lever-action, repeating rifle. It was 
first adapted to the .45-70 U. S. Government cartridge, and shortly 
afterwards was also made in the following calibers, all for black-powder 
cartridges : .38-56-255 ; .38-70-255 ; .40-65-260 ; .40-70-330 ; .40-82- 
260; and .45-90. In the fall of 1900 it was also put out with nickel 
steel barrel for the .33 Winchester center fire cartridge, a high-power 
cartridge with jacketed bullet. The only black-powder cartridges that 
it is now made for are the .45-70 and the .45-90. 

Only a very short movement of the finger lever is required to load 
this rifle, making it very easy to fire the gun rapidly while at the 
shoulder. In fact, this rifle, and the Winchester Model 1892, which has 
practically the same action, are the easiest and quickest in their 
operation of all lever action rifles. The rifle is locked by two bolts, 
each fitting into a slot in the receiver on one side, and into a similar 
slot in the breech-bolt on the other. The first opening movement of 
the lever draws back and locks the firing pin until the rifle is again 
ready for firing. A hook attached to the finger lever draws the car- 
tridge out of the magazine into the carrier block, which enables the 
use of a light magazine, permitting the magazine to be filled easily. 
The cartridge is forced from the carrier into the chamber by the 
forward movement of the breech bolt. The magazine is filled while 
the rifle is closed, through the spring cover on the right side of the 
receiver, and is provided with a stop which permits the use of car- 
tridges of different length, having the same length of shell. Thus rifles 
chambered for the .45-70 cartridge will handle that cartridge with 
either the 300, 330, 350, 405, or 500 grain bullets. 



3Q 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



The .45 caliber rifles in ordinary weight have 26-inch barrels ; the 
•33 W. C. F. rifle has a 24-inch barrel; while the .45-70 light-weight 
rifle has a 22-inch barrel. Rifles can be furnished with either straight 
or pistol grip stocks, and with either rifle or shot-gun butt plates, also 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



3i 



with either full- or half-length magazines. A full-length magazine 
holds 7 to 9 cartridges, depending upon the length of cartridge and 
magazine ; and the short magazine holds four cartridges of all lengths. 
The operation of the rifle will readily be understood from the sec- 
tional cuts of the action. 




Action closed 

To dismount the gun. Remove the stock. Unscrew strain screw. 
Drive out the mainspring from left to right. Remove the carrier 
spring. Take out the hammer screw and tang with sear attached. 
Draw out the hammer. Remove the spring cover. Drive out the fin- 




Action open 

ger lever pin and bushing. Draw the locking-bolts out from below. 
Pull back the breech-bolt until the lever connecting pin shows at the 
rear of the receiver. Drive out the pin. Draw out finger lever and 



32 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

carrier attached by the carrier hook. Remove the cartridge guide and 
magazine stop. 

To assemble the gun. Put in the magazine stop and cartridge guide. 
Connect carrier and finger lever with the carrier hook, and put them 
into the receiver from below. Enter the breech-bolt at the rear, and 
press the upper end of the finger lever into its place in the breech-bolt. 
Push in the lever connecting pin. To do this it will be necessary to 
press back the ejector until the notch in the ejector corresponds with 
the pin. Push the bolt forward into the gun. Push up the locking- 
bolts from below. Sfictfiat the cartridge guide enters its notch in the 
right hand locking-bolt. Replace finger lever pin and bushing. Re- 
place the spring cover. Lay the hammer in place, and push in the 
tang, drawing back the trigger, so that its point may not catch on the 
hammer. Push in the hammer screw. Replace the carrier spring. 
Replace the mainspring and stock. 

The Winchester Model 1886 rifle has for thirty years been easily the 
most popular big game rifle made in America. It has probably given 
more genuine satisfaction to its owners than any other rifle ever 
made. And this popularity has persisted in spite of the fact that it 
is made only for three almost obsolete cartridges. Riflemen seem 
willing to put up with these cartridges just to get the splendid action. 
The action combines, in a peculiarly lucky manner, a number of very 
excellent and important features. It has the best trigger pull of any 
repeating or magazine rifle, and while the factory pull is rather heavy 
it is capable of excellent refinement in the hands of a skilled gun- 
maker. The peculiar hang of the trigger and hammer is just ex- 
actly right for the hands of most men. The action works remarkably 
easy, and jams are almost unknown. The grip fits the hand very 
well. The action closes up tight so that snow, water, and dust do not 
readily find their way into the mechanism. It carries easily either in 
the hand or on the shoulder, and there is nothing to rattle about the 
rifle when stalking wary game. It is doubtful if this action will ever 
be equalled in a lever-action rifle. A majority of riflemen consider that 
the Winchester Company made a grave mistake in not adapting it to 
the .38—55, .32-40, .25-35, an d -3°-3 cartridges instead of bringing 
out an entirely new action, the Model 1894. The only criticism that 
can be made in regard to this rifle is that it is quite difficult to dis- 
mount should the mechanism require it for cleaning purposes. Per- 
sonally I believe it would be well to adapt it to two more modern 
cartridges, one a .32 caliber carrying a 220-grain bullet at 2,300 feet per 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 33 

second, and the other a .38 caliber carrying a 275-grain bullet at 2,000 
feet per second. These velocities could easily be secured with the new 
Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 16. 

The rifle balances best with round barrel and half magazine. A very 
popular specification^ for this model is : .33 caliber ; 24-inch round 
barrel without rear sight slot, half magazine, solid frame, pistol-grip 
stock, shotgun butt-plate of checked steel, Lyman ivory bead front 
sight, and Lyman No. 103 rear peep sight, which can be made to 
order for this rifle. While this rifle will not have the long range 
accuracy and great killing power of some of the models carrying more 
modern cartridges, it will probably give more satisfaction to its owner 
than any other big game rifle he has ever owned. It might also be said 
that this is probably the very best rifle for a left-handed shooter. 

WINCHESTER REPEATING RIFLES, MODELS l800 AND IQ06 

The actions of these two rifles are practically identical, and they 
both handle the .22-caliber, rim-fire ammunition. Practically the only 
difference is that the Model 1906 is slightly smaller and lighter, and 
is chambered to use interchangably the .22-short, .22-long, and .22-long 
rifle cartridges, while the Model 1890 is chambered and rifled for 
either the .22-short, .22-long, or .22- W. R. F. cartridges, but one rifle 
will only handle the cartridge for which it is chambered. 

The rifle has a sliding forearm action, the action being opened 
by pulling the forearm to the rear, and closed by forcing it to the 
front into place. The breech-block locks itself in plain view, and 
is of such size as to permit the use of a strong firing pin and extractor, 
and also to offer a good cover for the head of the cartridge. The 
action locks with each closing movement, and cannot be opened except 
by letting down the hammer or pushing forward the firing pin. The 
mechanism is such as to prevent the pulling of the trigger until the 
breech-block is closed and the rifle locked. 

To charge the magazine. Turn the milled head at the top of the 
magazine until the magazine tube is unlocked. Draw out the inner 
tube. This will leave the loading hole open. Cartridges can then be 
dropped into the magazine until the same is full. After the magazine 
is full, press down the inner case, and when clear down turn to the 
left to lock it in place. If it is desired to empty the magazine without 
passing the cartridges through the action, draw the inner tube out en- 
tirely, and the cartridges will drop out of the mouth of the magazine. 

To load the rifle. When the hammer is down, the motion of the 



34 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 





Rifle taken apart 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



35 



sliding forearm backward and forward unlocks, opens, and cocks 
the rifle, forces the cartridge into the chamber, and locks the rifle. 
The rifle once closed is locked while the hammer stands at full or 
half cock. To open the action without firing or letting down the 
hammer, push forward the firing pin with the thumb, and pull back 
on the sliding forearm at the same time. When the hammer stands 
at half cock, the rifle is locked both as to the opening of the breech- 
block and the pulling of the trigger. The hammer cannot be cocked by 
the opening motion of the breech-block from this position, but must 
be cocked by hand. 

To take dozvn the rifle. Turn out the assembling screw (a stop pin 
prevents its- dropping completely out), hold the arm by the barrel, 
with the left side down, and pull the stock from the barrel. Put the 
rifle together in the same position, first letting down the hammer, 
and pushing the breech-block to its forward position. 




Action open 



To dismount the gun. Take down the gun: All pins drive out 
from right to left. To take out the breech-block, remove the maga- 
zine ring pin ; draw out the magazine ; slide out the cover plate ; lift 
out the action slide; press on the firing pin, unlock the breech-block 
and draw it out backwards. To take out the extractor, drive out the 
extractor pin from the bottom of the breech-block. To remove the 
firing pin, take out the firing-pin stop screws and remove the firing pin 
stop. The firing pin can then be drawn out. To remove the hammer 
and carrier block from the tang, take off the stock, loosen the main- 
spring strain screw and the mainspring screw ; slide the stirrup off 
the mainspring, pressing down the mainspring to accomplish this. The 
mainspring can then be swung out sideways. The assembling screw 
and assembling screw bushing can then be removed and f he hammer 



36 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



taken out. Take out the trigger ; loosen the trigger spring screw ; drive 
out the trigger pin. 




Action closed 

To assemble the gun. Put in the trigger and trigger spring, carrier 
and hammer, and slip in the hammer pin. Slide the stirrup over the 
mainspring and tighten the mainspring screw and mainspring strain 
screw. Put the firing pin in the breech-block, and replace firing pin 
stop and stop screws. Replace extractor, driving in pin from top. 
Slip the breech-block into the frame. Replace action slide, and put 
on the slide cover. Replace magazine. To do this, turn the magazine 
so that the loading hole is next the barrel ; slip the magazine stop spring 
in place ; slide the magazine with stop spring in place so that the lower 
end of stop spring is under the magazine ring; turn the magazine so 
that stop spring comes next the barrel, and push it into place. Replace 
the magazine pin. Replace the butt stock. 

The Model 1890 rifle has been in use now for over twenty years, 
and has always given splendid satisfaction. It can be regarded as 
absolutely reliable in every respect. It is the favorite rifle for the 
popular shooting galleries, and is there given almost constant use, and 
very hard use at that. It has been demonstrated times without number 
that if the rifle is properly taken care of, used with black, Lesmok, or 
semi-smokeless powder entirely, and never with smokeless powder car- 
tridges, also when in constant use in the shooting gallery cleaned at least 
every 100 rounds, it will practically last a lifetime, and give good 
accuracy all the time. I have seen many of these rifles which have been 
fired over 100,000 times, and that are still giving fine accuracy. 

For sporting use the models to be recommended are the Model 1890 
firing the Winchester rim-fire cartridge, which is a fine grouse and 
squirrel rifle; and the Model 1906 which should be used only with 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



37 



the .22 long rifle ammunition. The latter cartridge is the most accu- 
rate .22 rim-fire cartridge made, and the firing of the .22 short car- 
tridge in a rifle chambered for the .22 long rifle cartridge, while possible 
and practical, will ultimately result in the ruination of the barrel 
through the burning out of the chamber. The .22 short cartridge 
should only be used in a rifle which is chambered and rifled for it alone. 



WINCHESTER REPEATING RIFLE, 
MODEL 1892 

This rifle is exactly the same as the Winchester 
Model 1886, and everything that has been said 
regarding that rifle pertains as well to this. 
The rifle is adapted to the .25-20, .32-20, .38-40 
and 44-40 Winchester center-Are cartridges. 
It is regularly made with barrels of ordinary steel, 
and weighs from 6% to *fh pounds. In .25 cali- 
ber particularly it is always best to obtain to 
special order a nickel-steel barrel, as it is ex- 
tremely hard to keep one of these small bore rifles 
clean when using smokeless powder when the bar- 
rel is made of ordinary steel. When this rifle 
is made with half-magazine, pistol-grip stock, and 
shotgun butt plate, it balances excellently and is 
a most pleasant rifle to handle and shoot. By far 
the best rear sight that can be placed on this rifle 
is the Lyman No. 103 which can be obtained to 
special order for it. This sight has adjustments 
for both elevation and windage which read to 
half an inch at 100 yards, and with it all is a per- 
fect hunting sight for rough work. 

Owing to the cartridges to which it is adapted 
this rifle is essentially a short-range arm, and for 
that purpose is a most excellent model because 
it can probably be operated faster and easier than 
any other lever action arm on the market. 



38 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 




Action close 



To dismount the gun. Take off butt stock. Throw down the lever. 
Turn out the mainspring strain screw until it does not bear on the 
spring. Take out the mainspring screw and mainspring. Take out 
the hammer screw. Withdraw the tang and slip out the hammer. 
Remove the finger lever pin stop screw (this is the forward screw on 
the left-hand side of the frame). Drive out the finger lever pin. A 
hole is left on the right-hand side of the gun, through which a punch 
may be used to drive out the pin. The pin is opposite this hole when 
the breech-bolt is in its most forward position. Throw the lever down 
and draw out the lever with the locking bolts attached. Remove the 
breech-bolt. Take out the two carrier screws and remove the carrier 
by pushing it backwards. Remove the cartridge guide screws and take 
out the guides. 




i'£2SM 



IT* 1 ">* 




I 



XJ> 



Action open 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 39 

To assemble the gun. Slip in the carrier from the lower side. To 
do this it will be necessary to push in the carrier stop so that the car- 
rier will slip into place between the walls of the frame. Replace the 
cartridge guides. The cartridge stop spring in the left-hand guide 
should be assembled with its point under the cartridge stop and con- 
caved side towards the receiver. Put in the bolt with the ejector, 
ejector spring, and collar assembled. Assemble the locking bolts upon 
the lever and push them, with the lever, into place from the lower side 
of the gun. Replace the finger lever pin and stop screw. Slip in the 
tang. Put the hammer in place and put in the hammer screw. As- 
semble the mainspring loosely on the tang. Catch the stirrup over the 
end of the mainspring before screwing it fast. Screw fast the main- 
spring screw and mainspring strain screw. 

WINCHESTER REPEATING RIFLE, MODEL 1894 

This is a tubular-magazine, repeating rifle that was placed on the 
market in response to a demand for an efficient repeating rifle to 
handle the popular .32-40 and .38-55 cartridges. It was originally 
designed for black-powder cartridges. Owing to its light weight and 
handiness it at once became very popular with sportsmen, particularly 
for deer hunting. In May, 1895, the famous .30-30 cartridge was 
adapted to it, a nickel-steel barrel being furnished for this car- 
tridge. In this caliber the rifle became enormously popular, owing 
to its good points as a rifle, and also because the .30-30 cartridge 
proved so far ahead of all-black^powder cartridges for ordinary 
American sporting use. It is safe to say that even today this rifle in 
.30-30 caliber has a larger sale than any other American big-game 
arm. Later on the .25-35 W. C. F., and the .32 Winchester special 
cartridges were also brought out and adapted to it. 

The mechanism has ample strength for the cartridges it handles. 
The breech bolt, worked by a finger lever, is automatically locked and 
supported by a vertical moving block, which shows on the top of the 
rifle when it is closed, and covers the whole rear of the breech bolt. 
The firing pin is automatically withdrawn and the trigger locked until 
the parts are in the firing position. In order to obtain sufficient move- 
ment to the rear of the breech bolt to handle the long cartridges 
adapted to this rifle, the under surface of the receiver (called the 
"link") drops down, pulling down the locking block and the pivot of 
the finger lever with it, when the action is opened, and is lifted back 
into place by the closing movement of the lever. As the lever opens, 



40 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



u 



k*&j 




:\| 



the cartridge in the magazine is permitted to move to the rear, being 
forced back by the magazine spring until it lies in the carrier. The 
latter part of the opening movement of the finger lever lifts the carrier 
up so that the cartridge is presented in front of the breech bolt in 
position to be forced into the chamber by the closing movement of 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



41 



the breech bolt. The arrangement of the carrier and link are such as 
to prevent the escape of more than one cartridge at a time from the 
magazine, and to permit of the use of cartridges slightly shorter than 
the standard. The operation of the rifle will be readily understood 
from the sectional cuts of the action. 




Action closed 



To dismount the gun. Take out the tang screw and remove the butt 
stock. Take out the finger lever pin stop screw and finger lever pin. 
Take out the link pin screw and link pin. Take out the finger lever 
and link. Take out the finger lever link screw, and separate the link 
from the finger lever. Take out the carrier screw from each side of 
the gun, and remove the carrier. Take out mainspring screw and 
mainspring. Take out the hammer screw and hammer, holding up 
safety catch pin while doing so. Take out lower tang. Take out lock- 






Hi/T 






Action open 



42 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

ing block. Take out the breech-bolt. Take out the cover spring screw 
and cover spring. Take out the carrier spring screw and carrier spring. 

To assemble the gun. Put in the carrier spring and carrier spring 
screw. Put in the cover' spring and cover spring screw. Slip in the 
breech-bolt. Slip in the locking block from below. Put the hammer 
in place, and slide the tang into place. Put in the hammer screw, re- 
membering that the sear cannot be moved without pressing up the 
safety catch pin. Catch the mainspring on to the stirrup, and put in 
the mainspring screw. Put in the carrier and replace the carrier screws, 
one on each side. Assemble the link to the finger lever. Push the 
finger lever partly up into the gun, and catch the rear end of the link 
upon the locking block. Put in. the link pin, and the link pin screw. 
Close the link into the gun, put in finger lever pin and finger lever pin 
stop screw. Slip on the stock, and put in the tang screw. 

The Model 1894 rifle is at its best when made up either with 26-inch 
round barrel, half magazine, pistol grip, and shotgun butt; or in car- 
bine form. Both of these models are light, and balance and handle 
well. The carbine is preferable for rough work, and for quick shoot- 
ing in thick brush, as well as for horseback. 

By far the best rear sight for this rifle is the Lyman No. 103 rear 
tang sight, which has adjustments for both elevation and windage 
reading to half an inch at 100 yards. While this is the best target 
sight on the market, it is also splendidly adapted for hunting, and is as 
strong and solid as any. 

The rifle is made in take-down form as well as solid frame, but 
the latter model should always be chosen as the accuracy and main- 
tenance of elevation and zero of take-down rifles can never be de- 
pended upon. It is not so much a matter of the take-down becoming 
loose, as it is the introduction of a second joint in the center of the 
rifle which gives variable flip and vibration. 

In some rifles that have been in use a long time it will be noticed 
that the finger lever often drops down at inopportune moments, par- 
tially opening the action, or even that the action partially opens when 
the rifle is fired. This is caused by the wearing of the friction stud 
at the rear end of the link, and the substitution of a new stud will 
completely correct the trouble. 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 43 

WINCHESTER REPEATING RIFLE, MODEL 1895 

This rifle was placed 011 the market to handle the more powerful of 
the modern cartridges which were so long that they could not be suc- 
cessfully handled by the old-style, tubular magazine rifles. It was the 
first box-magazine, lever-action rifle placed on the market. It was 
first brought out in a model somewhat different from the present type, 
having a different finger lever, and a slightly different receiver. A 
little experience with this first model showed that a secure lock for 
the finger lever was necessary by reason of the peculiar construction 
of the action, and the present model took its place. Very few of the 
first model were sold, it being adapted to the .30-40 U. S. cartridge 
(KragO, the .236 navy cartridge, the .38-72 and .40-72 black-powder 
cartridges. The new model was made for all these cartridges except 
the navy cartridge, but the manufacture of this rifle for the black- 
powder cartridge was discontinued several years ago. At present this 
rifle is being made to handle the following cartridges : .30-40 U. S. 
Government ; .303 British ; .30 Model 1903 ; .30 Model 1906 ; .35 W. C. 
F. and .405 W. C. F. It is made in sporting, carbine, and musket 
styles, all having round, nickel-steel barrels. 

The receiver, open at the top, permits the symmetrical locking of the 
breech bolt. The first opening motion of the finger lever withdraws 
the trigger from contact with the sear, before the gun is unlocked, so 
that it is impossible to fire the gun except when fully locked. The con- 
tinued opening motion of the lever draws down the locking bolt and 
withdraws the breech bolt, cocking the rifle and ejecting the cartridge 
or fired shell. The breech bolt, passing over the hammer, presses the 
firing pin lock against the latter, and makes fast the firing pin. When 
the breech bolt is in its rearmost position the hammer is made to hold 
it open by contact, so that the magazine may be easily loaded. When 
in this position the upper cartridge in the magazine is so presented as 
to engage the breech bolt. 

The closing action of the lever carries forward the breech bolt, 
forcing the cartridge out of the magazine into the chamber. After the 
breech bolt has reached its closed position, the locking bolt is lifted 
into place, first locking the rifle, and afterwards unlocking the firing 
pin. The final closing movement of the lever presents the trigger 
against the sear, leaving the rifle in position for firing. 

The magazine is of the box type, and presents the cartridges to the 
lower front edge of the breech bolt in position to be forced into the 



44 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 




chamber, and is arranged to prevent the escape of the cartridge fol- 
lowing before the preceding one is in the grasp of the extractor, thus 
preventing the jamming of the rifle by false movement. The opera- 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



45 



tion of the rifle can be readily understood by an examination of the 
sectional cuts showing the action. 

The rifle is loaded by opening the action, grasping a cartridge with 
the bullet between the thumb and forefingers, and forcing the head 
of the cartridge between the lips of the magazine. Then move the 
head of the cartridge to the rear of the magazine against the face of the 
breech bolt, and turn the cartridge down forward into the magazine, 
following with the thumb until the entire cartridge lies in the grasp of 
the lips of the magazine. Repeat with each cartridge. Rifles cham- 
bered for the .30-40 and .303 British cartridges hold five cartridges 
in the magazine. The others hold only four cartridges, which with 
one in the chamber, makes five shots at the command of the rifleman. 

The rifle is made in both solid frame and take-down models, the 
former being always advised for reasons stated in Chapter XIX. 




Action closed 



To dismount the gun. Remove the forearm and butt stock. Open 
the lever and remove the carrier screw and magazine tip screws. 
(These are the three lower screws in the forward end of the receiver.) 
Remove the magazine with the inclosed carrier, turn out the main- 
spring strain screw, take out the mainspring screw and mainspring. 
Close the lever and remove the hammer screw and hammer. Remove 
the finger lever pin stop screw and drive out the finger lever pin from 
the forward hole in right side of receiver. Remove the link pin. (This 
connects the link with the lower tang.) The finger lever, link and 
trigger can then be removed together. Take out the sear spring screw 
(the forward screw on the bottom of the lower tang) and the sear pin. 
Take out the locking bolt and breech-bolt. 



4 6 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 




Action open 

To assemble the gun. Put in the breech-bolt, assembled complete 
with firing pin, extractor and ejector. Put in the locking bolt. Put 
in the sear, sear pin and spring. Put in the finger lever and drive in 
the finger lever pin from the left side. Put in the finger lever pin stop 
screw. Attach the link to the lower tang by the link pin and drive 
in the finger lever link pin, connecting the link with the finger lever. 
(This link should be attached to the tang with the trigger and finger 
lever catch all assembled.) Put in the hammer and hammer screw. 
Put in the mainspring and mainspring screw, and turn up the main- 
spring strain screw. Put in the magazine with carrier in place. Insert 
the carrier screw through the receiver, magazine and carrier. Replace 
the forearm and butt stock. 

Until the advent of the Newton rifle, the Winchester Model 1895 
was, generally speaking, the only rifle made in America which used' 
cartridges that can be considered as powerful enough for all kinds 
of American game. The rifle is very strong and reliable. Its func- 
tioning is absolutely sure provided one takes the precaution of always 
operating the lever to its fullest extent ; that is, working it hard, throw- 
ing it fully open and fully shut each time. It permits of using un- 
crimped ammunition and pointed bullets which cannot be used satis- 
factorily in the tubular magazines. This rifle has been used with great 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 47 

success for twenty years by sportsmen all over the world, and has 
always given splendid satisfaction, except in one particular. On ac- 
count of the protruding magazine and the balance it is rather an un- 
comfortable rifle to carry. The magazine precludes the rifle being 
carried in the usual way, barrel up, on the shoulder, and also comes 
just where the hand grasps it when it is carried at a trail ; that is, in 
the hand, by the side, with the barrel horizontal. These faults can, 
however, be forgiven in view of its other good points. There is very 
little to get out of order or break about the action, which is unusually 
simple for a lever-action arm. One good feature is the unusual strength 
of grip, which insures against breakage in the field and also contributes 
to the good shooting qualities of the rifle. 

One feature this rifle shares with all lever-action rifles made in this 
country, but it is more evident in the Model 1895 than in the others 
because it uses ammunition having a higher breech pressure. I refer 
to the elasticity of the action, which allows a certain spring to the 
breech bolt when cartridges developing pressures of much over 42,000 
pounds per square inch are used. This springing of the breech bolt per- 
mits the stretching of the fired shells, so that shells fired with high 
pressure in lever actions are stretched so that they cannot be reloaded 
satisfactorily. They will not fit the chamber after they have once 
been fired without undue force being used on the lever to close the 
action. The body of the shell is stretched, and this cannot be over- 
come with a shell resizing die. As a result when the more powerful 
cartridges are used in this rifle it will be necessary to use new shells 
for special loads, and if one wishes to use reduced loads he will have 
to get new shells for them also, although shells that have only been 
fired with reduced loads can be used indefinitely for these loads, or 
used once for the full charge. This trouble is not experienced to any 
extent in the .30-40 or .303 British cartridges. 

This rifle cannot be used with the ordinary Lyman combination 
tang sight as the breech bolt has such a long travel to the rear that 
it interferes with the sight on the tang. The only tang sight that 
can be used is that with flexible base made by the Marble Arms and 
Tool Co. This sight is held in position by a spring, and when the 
breech bolt comes to the rear the sight is pushed down by it. As the 
breech bolt moves forward in closing the rifle, the sight springs 
up into firing position again. This sight is the correct one for Model 
1895 rifles chambered for the .30-40 and .303 British cartridges. The 
other cartridges for this rifle, however, develop a little too,, much 



48 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

recoil for a tang sight ; there is liability of the sight hitting the rifle- 
man in the eye during the recoil, particularly in the hunting fields, 
where it is not always possible to take a firm, regular standing position 
as one naturally does on the target range. When a rifle with one 
of the heavier cartridges is used, by far the best rear sight is the 
Lyman No. 41 receiver sight with wind gauge. The No. 21 sight 
usually seen on this rifle does not permit of sufficient delicacy of 
adjustment for elevation. 

It is recommended that the rifle be always equipped with shotgun 
stock, and with a checked steel butt plate, which can always be obtained 
on special order without extra charge. The rifle butt plate increases 
the recoil, and makes snap shooting more difficult, and rubber butt 
plates will not stand the wear and tear of real wilderness hunting, par- 
ticularly in mountainous countries where it is absolutely necessary 
sometimes to use the butt of the rifle as an aid to climbing, par- 
ticularly in rock work. 

WINCHESTER SINGLE SHOT RIFLE 

I consider this the strongest and most reliable rifle action ever made. 
Of course it is a single shot, and there is no excuse for such a rifle not 
being strong and reliable, as it has only to open and close to receive 
the single cartridge loaded by hand and is not called upon mechanically 
to take a cartridge out of a magazine, insert it in the chamber, and 
finally withdraw and eject it, as repeating rifles are. This has always 
been my favorite action, particularly for target shooting and experi- 
mental work, testing, etc. Even as a young boy of thirteen I strongly 
admired one of these rifles exhibited in the window of a local gun- 
store, and longed for the time when I could possess one. At the 
present time I own no less than seven of them for various cartridges, 
and have at one time or another owned eighteen. It is the best action 
made for Schuetzen target shooting, and is the favorite one to which 
to attach special Pope and Neidner hand-made barrels. The barrels 
that the Winchester Company regularly equip this rifle with are the 
best commercial barrels for accuracy that it is possible to obtain. I 
have one of these rifles for the .30-40 cartridge with regular Win- 
chester barrel, which in many years has never missed a 2.y 2 inch circle 
at 100 yards that has not been my fault. The rifle makes a most 
excellent hunting rifle too, when speed of fire is not a necessity. I 
used this same .30-40 single shot for one season's big-game hunting 
in British Columbia, as well as on many hunts in the tropical jungle 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



49 



of Central America, and I never had any fault to find with it, even 
when rapidity of fire was considered, except only when my hands 
were numb with cold, making the handling of the cartridge and 
loading a slow operation. I have often gotten in two or three shots 





50 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

at running game with it. When a man has used a certain rifle for 
twenty years and it has never failed him a single time, he acquires a 
certain respect and attachment for it. 

The Winchester single shot rifle is made in a great variety of 
calibers from the tiny .22 rim fire to the big .405 W. C. F. and 45-70 
cartridges. At one time or another this rifle has been made for prac- 
tically every cartridge that the Winchester Company has produced, 
but at the present time it is being made only for the most popular cart- 
ridges. It is regularly made only for cartridges having a rimmed 
shell, but a few have been made to order for the National Rifle Asso- 
ciation adapted to the rimless .30 Model 1906 cartridge. It is usually 
put out with a heavy barrel, especially for the larger cartridges. This 
barrel is called the No. 3, and rifles with it weigh in the neighborhood 
of nine pounds. This heavy barrel is free from the vibrations that 
influence all thin barrels to a certain extent, and it holds its elevation 
and zero splendidly, especially when the rifle is one with solid frame. 
These No. 3 barrels are regularly made 30 inches long. This is longer 
than necessary, and I have adopted for myself a standard of 27-inch 
barrel, pistol grip, and shotgun butt plate. As so made the rifle bal- 
ances finely, and one would scarcely believe that it weighed as much 
as nine pounds. 




Winchester single shot rifle, caliber .30-40 U. S. owned by the author. 

Equipped with Winchester telescope sight, Marble flexible rear sight, Lyman 

ivory bead windgauge front sight, pistol-grip, shotgun butt-stock, and 27-inch 
No. 3 round barrel of nickel steel. 

This rifle has a sliding breech-block which drops down through slots 
in the receiver when the finger level is opened, thus allowing access to 
the chamber for loading, and also permitting the rifle to be cleaned 
and examined from the breech. The breech-block is supported by 
the heavy slots in the interior walls of the receiver, and by the whole 
of the rear part of the receiver. It is impossible for the breech-block 
to open up or blow back during firing, except by force which would 
destroy the entire action. The firing pin is automatically withdrawn 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



5i 



at the first opening movement of the rifle, and held back until the rifle 
is closed. The hammer is centrally hung and drops down with the 
breech-block. On closing the breech-block the hammer formerly came 
to full cock, but the rifle is now made so that it comes only to half 
cock when the action is closed. It can be made to order, however, to 
come to full cock as in the early model. Single and double-set trig- 
gers can be furnished for the rifle, and are desirable if the arm is to be 
used only for target shooting of testing ammunition. For a hunting 
rifle I very much prefer the single trigger which can be adjusted to 
pull at any weight by a good gunsmith. I have mine adjusted to just 
two pounds, and they are all mighty sweet, clean pulls. 

The firing pin I have not found altogether satisfactory, especially 
where smokeless cartridges and non-mercuric primers are used. It 
misses fire occasionally, and sometimes punctures the primers when 
used with such ammunition. The late Dr. Mann invented a firing pin 
for this action which is most perfect, and completely cures this trouble, 
as well as permitting enormous charges to be fired in the rifle with 
a complete absence of primer troubles. This firing pin can only be 
adjusted to the rifle now by Mr. A. O. Neidner of No. 18 Beacon 
Street, Maiden, Mass., he alone, having the plans and specifications for 
it. In deference to the desire of Dr. Mann, expressed to me before 
his death, I defer from describing it here. I believe he intended to de- 
scribe it in a book that he was preparing at the time of his death. 



* 1 ill 1 iWii 




-^ 




Action closed 



To dismount the gun. Take off the forearm. Take out the ejector 
spring. Loosen the stop screw and take out the finger lever pin. 



52 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Draw out the breech-block by the finger lever with the hammer at- 
tached. The extractor will drop out. If it is desired to remove the 
trigger or sear, take off the stock. Remove the side tang screws and 
tang; the pieces attached to the tang can then be removed by pushing 
out the pins which hold them. Remove the sear spring screw and 
spring. 

To assemble the gun. Replace the sear spring and screw. Mount 
the trigger and other parts of the lock on the tang, and slide it into 
place. Replace the side tang screws. Assemble together the hammer 
spring, hammer, breech-block, and finger lever, and hold them in the 
same relation to each other as shown in the cut ; that is, the firing pin 
protruding, and the hammer against the breech-block. In this posi- 
tion push them from the under side of the gun partly into position. 
Put in extractor, and push the whole into place, holding back the trig- 
ger, so that the sear may not catch on the hammer. Open action, re- 
place ejector spring, taking care to see that its inner end rests in its 
seat on the extractor. Replace stock and forearm. 

WINCHESTER SELF-LOADING RIFLES, 
MODELS I903, I905, I907 AND I9IO 

The operation of all the Winchester Auto-Loading Rifles is practi- 
cally identical. The recoil from the fired cartridge ejects the empty 
shell, cocks the hammer, and throws a fresh cartridge into the chamber. 
Integral with the breech-block is a heavy weight so arranged that 
the weight lies in a recess in the forearm. This weighted bolt is held 
forward so that its face comes against the opening of the chamber by 
a heavy bolt spring. When the recoil of the fired cartridge comes on 
the face of the bolt the inertia of the weight has first to be disturbed, 
putting the bolt into motion, and moving it to the rear against the 
tension of the bolt spring. The inertia of the weight is such as to de- 
lay the starting of the backward movement of the breech bolt until 
the bullet has left the barrel, and the whole force of the recoil is 
sufficient to fully operate the breech bolt to the rear. This rear move- 
ment of the breech bolt from recoil extracts and ejects the fired shell, 
and presents the head of the bolt in the rear of the next cartridge in the 
magazine which has been forced up in front of the bolt as soon as the 
latter reaches its rearmost position, by the action of the magazine spring. 
The bolt having been forced to the rear by the recoil, the bolt spring 
then acts to move it forward into its original place, closing the bolt, 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 53 

forcing the top cartridge into the chamber, and leaving the rifle cocked 
and ready for instant firing. To operate the rifle it is necessary for 
the first shot to fill the magazine, and then to push quickly back on the 
operating sleeve, which will be found projecting just in front of the 
forearm tip. This operates the breech bolt exactly as firing would 
have done, and places a cartridge in the chamber of the rifle, leaving 
the rifle full cocked and ready for firing. To fire the rifle it is 
necessary only to pull the trigger, the action operating itself by recoil. 
The instant the rifle is fired it is all ready for firing again, but the 
trigger has to be pulled for each shot. When loaded and all ready 
for firing the rifle can be locked by pushing the safety, found on the 
trigger guard just in rear of the trigger, to the left. Immediately after 
firing each shot the trigger should be released, allowing it to move 
fully forward. The operation of this type of rifle will easily be under- 
stood by an examination of the sectional cuts. 

The Model 1903 rifle is a .22 caliber, using the .22 Winchester 
Automatic smokeless cartridge. The magazine is contained in the 
butt stock, and the rifle is loaded by holding the rifle muzzle down, 
and turning the magazine plug, seated in the depression in the butt- 
plate, to the left, drawing out the magazine tube until the magazine 
follower clears opening in stock. Drop the cartridges, bullet foremost, 
through the opening in the right side of the stock into the magazine. 
Push in the magazine tube and lock it by turning the magazine plug 
to the right. This is an excellent little arm for fancy rifle shooting, 
and for all use where extreme rapidity of fire in a .22 caliber is 
desirable. The cartridge is not quite as powerful as the .22 long rifle 
cartridge, being inside lubricated, and having a 45-grain bullet with 
a muzzle velocity of 903 feet per second. It is to be regretted that 
the cartridge manufacturers have never brought out a cartridge for 
this rifle loaded with Lesmok or semi-smokeless powder. The smoke- 
less cartridge is quite accurate but will sooner or later ruin the bore 
of the rifle through pitting, and no known way of cleaning will 
prevent this. In such a case the only thing to do is to send the rifle 
to the factory to have a new barrel fitted. The cartridge has a 
hardened bullet that does not expand well on animal tissue, and as 
a consequence it has hardly sufficient killing power for even the 
smallest game. Too much wounded game will escape, and in the 
interests of humanity this rifle should never be used on game larger 
than English sparrows and rats. 



54 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



: M 



i 



v,m 




% 






INSTRUCTIONS FOR DISMOUNTING AND ASSEMBLING THE WINCHESTER 
SELF-LOADING RIFLE. MODEL 1903 

To dismount parts attached to the receiver. Take down gun by un- 
screwing take-down screw. Note that all pins are driven out from 
left to right. Remove forearm tip screws. Draw forearm tip for- 
ward, and free it from forearm tip tenon together with operating 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



55 




Action closed 



sleeve. Remove operating sleeve spring. Remove forearm tip tenon, 
driving from right to left. Remove forearm. Unscrew bolt guide rod 
and draw it forward out of bolt. Remove bolt spring. Retract bolt 
to rear of receiver and lift rear end of bolt away from top of receiver 
and withdraw from receiver. Remove ejector screw and drive ejector 
to rear. To remove extractor, take out extractor plunger stop screw ; 
insert thin instrument such as a knife blade between extractor and 
extractor plunger ; retract extractor plunger to fullest possible extent, 
and then extractor may be lifted out. Remove the extractor plunger 
and spring. To remove firing pin and bolt roll, drive out firing pin stop 
pin, releasing bolt roll. Withdraw firing pin and firing pin spring. 
To replace extractor, insert extractor spring and plunger in extractor 
spring hole and retain plunger in its retired position by means of pin 
or other small article, pressing on its forward end through extractor 
slot. Insert extractor until it rests upon the pin which is maintaining 
extractor plunger in retired position. Withdraw pin and push ex- 
tractor down in its original position. Replace extractor plunger stop 
screw. Assemble other parts contained in receiver in reverse order. 







Action open 



To dismount parts attached to the tang. Turn magazine plug to 
the left and withdraw inner magazine tube. Remove butt plate screws 
and butt plate. Unscrew butt stock nut. (A split screw-driver is 
necessary for this in order to straddle outer magazine tube.) Take 
off butt stock. Withdraw trigger lock plunger and spring from rear 
of tang. To remove magazine friction spring, drive forward out of 
dovetail cut in which it is seated, using the small hole in the spring 



56 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

base as a driving point. To remove hammer, allow hammer to assume 
its forward or dropped position. Drive out hammer spring abutment 
pin and turn hammer spring abutment to one side and lift out, re- 
lieving strain on hammer spring. Drive out hammer pin, and slide 
hammer, with spring and hammer spring guide rod attached, forward. 
To remove cartridge cut-off, drive out pin, and cartridge cut-off with 
spring can be lifted out. To remove sear and trigger, drive out trigger 
pin and withdraw trigger through guard, and trigger spring may be 
withdrawn from its seat in rear of tang by forcing it forward into 
trigger slot. Push out trigger lock from either side. It is not advis- 
able to remove magazine throat from tang, as these parts are put 
together so snugly that they are liable to be damaged unless proper 
appliances are at hand for removing them. To remove take-down 
screw lock and spring, drive out stop pin in shank of take-down screw, 
remove take-down screw, drive out take-down screw lock pin, and with- 
draw take-down screw lock and spring. 

To assemble parts in tang. Replace take-down screw lock and 
spring, and drive in take-down screw lock pin, holding take-down screw 
lock in the tang. Insert take-down screw and replace take-down 
screw stop pin, replace cartridge cut-off and trigger spring. Replace 
trigger lock with the letter " L " on the lower right hand side ; replace 
trigger and sear, taking care that sear spring is properly seated in sear. 
Slip hammer with spring and hammer spring guide rod attached over 
throat as far to the rear as possible, maintaining meanwhile a rear- 
ward draught on sear so that base of hammer may pass well back on 
top of sear. While hammer is in this rearward position, slip in ham- 
mer spring abutment, and replace hammer spring abutment pin. In 
placing hammer spring abutment, it should be noted that the larger 
side of the hole for passage of the hammer spring guide rod should 
be on forward side. Press base of hammer forward and align hammer 
pin hole with its opening in the tang, entering hammer spring guide rod 
through hole in hammer spring abutment, and replace hammer pin. 
Replace trigger lock plunger and spring. Replace butt stock. 

The Model 1905 rifle handles the .32 and .35 Winchester self- 
loading cartridge. The Model 1907 handles the .351 Winchester self- 
loading cartridge, and the Model 1910 the .401 Winchester self-loading 
cartridge. These models are all practically identical except as to 
cartridges and calibers. The magazine, situated in front of the 
trigger guard, is detachable by pressing forward on the magazine 
lock found on the right side of the forward end of the guard. Then 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 57 

pull out the magazine. The action should always be closed before 
placing the magazine in the rifle. To fill the magazine, detach it from 
the rifle and press the head of the cartridge on the magazine follower 
or preceding cartridge, immediately forward of the curved lips of 
the magazine. Press the cartridge down and back under the maga- 
zine lips until it slides into the magazine. Place the magazine in the 
rifle. To load, quickly push back the operating sleeve as far as it 
will go and let it spring forward. 

The mechanism of all these rifles is so simple that it is not at all 
liable to get out of order if given anything like proper care. It 
should be kept clean and oiled with a light oil. These rifles have 
been in use now for a number of years and have proved very reliable 
in their functioning, practically as much so as the best hand-operated, 
repeating rifles. They are excellent for any use where rapidity of 
fire is desired, particularly for the shooting of medium-sized game 
in thick cover. 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR DISMOUNTING AND ASSEMBLING THE WINCHESTER 
SELF-LOADING RIFLES, MODELS I905, I907 AND I9IO 




Action closed 



To dismount parts attached to the receiver. Cock hammer, release 
and unscrew take-down screw, take gun apart. Note that all pins are 
driven out from left to right. Remove forearm tip nut. Draw fore- 
arm tip with operating sleeve forward. Draw forearm forward, un- 
screw bolt guide rod and draw it out of bolt. Remove bolt spring. Do 
not remove washer and buffer. Retract bolt to rear of receiver, lift 
forward end away from barrel and remove. Ejector is permanently 
fixed in receiver and can be removed only by unscrewing barrel from 
receiver. This should not be done. To remove extractor, take out 
extractor plunger stop screw, insert thin instrument, such as a knife 
blade, between extractor and extractor plunger, retract extractor 
plunger to fullest possible extent, then extractor may be lifted out. 

Remove extractor plunger arid spring. To remove firing pin, drive 
out firing pin stop pin from below, withdraw firing pin and firing pin 
spring. 



58 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



To assemble parts attached to the receiver. When replacing firing 
pin, drive firing pin stop pin in from above with flat end of pin down, 
so that crowned end is below top surface of bolt. To replace ex- 
tractor, insert extractor spring and plunger, and retain plunger in its 
retired position by means of pin or other small article, pressing on its 
forward end through extractor slot. Insert extractor until it rests 
upon the pin which is maintaining extractor plunger in retired posi- 
tion. Withdraw pin and push extractor down into its original posi- 
tion. Replace extractor plunger stop screw. When replacing bolt — 
in case washer and buffer have been removed — insert steel washer on 
top of buffer. The operating sleeve spring must be compressed in 
operating sleeve, and retained in this position while assembling, by a 
pin through hole in side of operating sleeve. Assemble other parts 
contained in receiver in reverse order from that in which they were 
dismounted. 




Action open 



To dismount parts attached to the guard. Press magazine lock 
inward and withdraw magazine. Remove butt plate, unscrew butt 
stock bolt and take off butt stock. To remove hammer, remove tim- 
ing lever spring screw and spring, drive hammer pin part way out 
and remove timing lever. With thumb resting on face of hammer, 
pull trigger, allowing hammer to assume forward position, drive ham- 
mer pin out. To remove sear and trigger, drive out trigger pin, re- 
move the sear, sear spring and trigger, push trigger spring forward and 
out from rear. To remove trigger lock, insert pin or other small ar- 
ticle through hole in trigger lock, press trigger lock plunger downward, 
and at the same time push trigger lock out from right to left. Remove 
trigger lock plunger and spring. To remove take-down screw and 
take-down screw lock, drive out stop pin in shank of take-down screw, 
and remove take-down screw. Remove take-down screw lock by push- 
ing it forward and upward from rear of guard. Remove magazine lock 
screw, magazine lock, and magazine lock spring. Assemble in reverse 
order. Note that trigger lock is assembled with letter L down and on 
right hand side of gun. 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 59 

To dismount the magazine. Raise up front end of follower and pull 
it clear of magazine. 

To assemble the magazine. Replace spring with large portion down, 
and with cut-off end toward rear. Place follower on spring with end 
hooked over stud underneath. Press follower down and slide it under 
lips of magazine. 




Rifle taken down 

To take dozvn the gun. Cock the gun by pushing in the operating 
sleeve. Press down the take-down screw lock, found under the take- 
down screw, located at the rear of the receiver, and turn the take- 
down screw to the left until it is free from the receiver. Draw the 
barrel and forearm directly forward. In cleaning the barrel, retract 
the bolt by pushing back the operating sleeve and lock it in that posi- 
tion by turning the tip either to the right or left. 

THE REMINGTON-U. M. C. AUTO-LOADING RIFLE, MODEL NO. 8 

This is a high-power, auto-loading rifle adapted to the .25, .30, .32, 
and .35 caliber Remington-U. M. C. auto-loading cartridges. The re- 
coil throws the locked-together barrel and breech bolt backward against 
springs. These springs not only retard and control the backward 
movement, but also serve to eject the empty shell and to cock and 
reload the rifle. In these respects it differs from all other auto-load- 
ing sporting rifles made in the United States, all others being of the 
" blow-back " type, the bolt only moving to the rear, its movement being 
retarded by a weight and springs until the bullet has left the barrel. 
The Remington-U. M. C. principle is without doubt the best, and it 
can be used with ammunition having a higher breech pressure than 
the other type, but the action requires more parts and is slightly more 
complicated. We thus see this rifle using cartridges which will 
perform well at long range, whereas the other types use cartridges 
which will do effective work only at short ranges. 



6o 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 





The mechanical operation of this rifle is best described in six 
stages : 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 61 

First stage. At the moment of firing. The hammer has struck 
the firing pin, driving it forward, exploding the primer, and firing the 
cartridge. The bolt carrier is locked to the rear of the barrel by the 
turned position of the breech bolt, there being two locking lugs at the 
head of the breech bolt similar to the lugs on the Mauser type of rifle. 
This locked position of the bolt and barrel locks the cartridge in the 
chamber — all gas pressure is held in — all drive of the explosion is 
behind the bullet. 

Second stage. The cartridge having been fired, the recoil instantly 
develops. The barrel and bolt carrier, locked together, start rear- 
ward, bringing with them the fired shell. The barrel slides rearward 
through the barrel jacket — the steel casing outside the barrel proper 
to which the sights are affixed. The rearward rush of barrel and 
bolt carrier compresses the heavy recoil and lighter action springs, 
pushing the hammer backward. Towards the completion of the re- 
coil motion the resistance of the buffer spring is encountered. This 
spring slows down the further rearward motion of the barrel and bolt 
carrier. 

Third stage. At the instant of completing the rearward move- 
ment. The recoil and action springs are fully compressed. A pro- 
jecting latch on the side of the frame, called the " bolt-carrier latch," 
is allowed at this point to spring into a notch, locking the bolt in its 
rearward position. The hammer, pushed back to full rear position, is 
thrown into the safety notch. The trigger is held as if by pressure of 
the finger when pulled to fire. It will be necessary to release this 
pressure and allow the trigger to engage with the hammer by the 
front notch before the next shot can be fired. Each shot, therefore, 
is under complete control of the trigger finger. 

Fourth stage. The instant the recoil is spent, the recoil spring 
begins to draw the barrel forward in its jacket. The barrel and bolt 
carrier start forward. The bolt carrier moves but a little distance, as 
it is held from going completely forward by the bolt carrier latch 
engaging a notch in the bolt carrier. The barrel, relieved from the 
bolt carrier, continues its forward movement, revolving the breech 
bolt proper and thus unlocking itself from it. The empty shell is 
held in position by the extractor until the forward motion of the 
barrel withdraws the shell entirely from the chamber, when the 
ejector, held against the base of the shell by the ejector spring, is al- 
lowed to throw the fired shell up and entirely clear of the rifle. 

Fifth stage. The recoil spring has carried the barrel forward to 



62 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

its full forward rest position. The top cartridge in the magazine has 
been forced upward by the magazine spring. The barrel extension 
has forced down the barrel lock, which in turn has pressed upward 
on the forward end of the bolt carrier latch, withdrawing it from 
the notch on the bolt carrier, and allowing the bolt carrier to start 
forward, propelled by the pressure of the action spring. The bolt 
carrier then pushes the top cartridge in the magazine up an incline 
on the top of the magazine and breech, starting it forward into the 
chamber. The hammer is still held in the safety notch, and will not 
be allowed to spring into the forward notch until the bolt carrier has 
completed its forward motion to lock the fresh cartridge in the 
chamber. 

Sixth stage. The bolt carrier has now completed its forward move- 
ment, forcing the cartridge completely into the chamber. The claw 
of the extractor has ridden over the head of the shell ready for ex- 
tracting after firing. The firing pin is in position to be struck by the 
hammer. The breech bolt carrier has completed its forward motion, 
rotating the breech bolt so as to turn the locking lugs into their seats 
in the barrel extension, thus locking the breech bolt to the barrel, and 
locking the cartridge in the chamber. The trigger is held by the for- 
ward notch. The rifle is fully cocked, ready to fire. 

If it is desired to make the rifle safe for carrying, etc., the raising 
of the safety lever on the right side of the receiver will throw the safety 
rocker on the rear of the trigger, locking it. 

DIRECTIONS FOR OPERATING 

To load. With the safety thrown down, open the breech by draw- 
ing the operating handle back as far as it will go. This will expose 
the opening or entrance to magazine, which can be filled by inserting 
one cartridge at a time or the full quantity (5), by use of cartridge 
clip. Three clips are furnished with each auto-loading rifle. 

To load zvith clip. Drop a clip with its five cartridges in the top of 
receiver, place the end of the thumb on topmost cartridge near the 
clip, close up to the head, and press the cartridge down into the maga- 
zine, then draw back slightly on the operating handle and let it go for- 
ward, which will push a cartridge into the chamber. 

To load without clip. If not using clip, press the cartridges into the 
magazine one at a time until it is full, then draw back slightly on the 
operating handle and let it go forward, which will force the cartridge 
from the magazine into the chamber. 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



63 



To refill the magazine when partly empty. It frequently happens 
that after firing one or more shots it is desirable to refill the maga- 
zine. To do this, draw back the operating handle as far as it will 
go and press upward on the thumb-piece of magazine indicator located 
on left hand side of receiver on lower edge, which will hold the bolt 
open. After filling the magazine, draw back slightly on the operating 
handle and let it snap forward. 

To use a single loader. Drop a cartridge on top of magazine and 
press down on thumb-piece on left hand side of receiver; or press a 
cartridge into the magazine, draw back on the operating handle and let 
it snap forward. 

To take dozen. A single " take down " system permits the Reming- 
ton-U. M. C. Auto-loading Rifle being taken down and put together 





"'X 



Auto-loading rifle, taken down 



easily and quickly. This is especially convenient for carrying and 
cleaning. With the breech closed, unscrew the swivel and remove the 
forearm, drawing forward toward the muzzle. This will expose the as- 
sembling screw with lever attached which holds the barrel jacket and 
receiver together. Turn the lever down and unscrew, pull barrel 

jacket forward and it will separate 

from the receiver. This take-down 

is extremely durable and positively 

^ will not wear loose if assembling 

||V screw is kept tight. 

To put together. Open the breech. 
M Insert end of barrel extension into 

_ . receiver and press back until the 

Setting -ill- r* 

breech-bolt jacket head enters its seat. Screw 



» km.. 



■m 






64 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



down assembling screw tight. Close breech by pressing down on 
magazine indicator thumb-piece ; at the same time hold operating 
handle to prevent bolt snapping forward quickly. Now, if lugs on 
bolt do not enter slot in barrel extension, draw back operating handle 
about one inch and hold it there ; then with a cartridge, screw-driver or 
other implement, push bolt forward until the lugs on bolt are in posi- 
tion to enter slot in barrel extension. Generally the bolt can be pushed 
forward with the finger and no implement required. 

Note that only when the bolt is in its forward position can the lock- 
ing lugs on bolt enter the slot in barrel extension. 

Care should be taken to see that assembling screw is always kept 
tight. 

Sectional views 



l^^^^^^mm 




*^^^BE?L !l ' __— s^— — ifS 



Action closed 




Action open 

I have had almost ten years' experience with this rifle and know 
it to be most reliable in its action and functioning. In all this time 
I have known but one accident to occur, the breaking of the recoil 
spring on a .25 caliber rifle. It can be regarded as perfectly reliable 
so long as the action is kept reasonably clean and lubricated. It is 
a good, accurate rifle and can be recommended to any one desiring 
extreme rapidity of fire as the best of our self-loading rifles. As has 
been stated, it is the only self-loading rifle that is adapted to cartridges 
suitable for use at ranges over 200 yards. Of the cartridges adapted 
to it, the .25 caliber is the most accurate and the most pleasant to fire. 



THE AMERICAN RIELES 65 

The recoil of the .35 caliber cartridge is rather severe, as the auto- 
loading feature seems to retard the time of recoil so as to make it 
felt more. 

The rifle is regularly furnished with a 22-inch smokeless steel 
barrel, and with either straight or pistol-grip stocks. Either rifle 
or shotgun butt stocks can be furnished, but the shotgun butt is only 
furnished with a hard rubber butt-plate, which is very apt to become 
broken or chipped in rough service. The safety lock on the right 
side of the receiver has a very small projection to operate it. This 
projection should be enlarged to afford a firm grip for the thumb and 
forefinger. It would then be capable of much easier and quicker 
operation, especially with gloved hands, and it could be held away 
from the receiver slightly so as to operate noiselessly. As made, 
whenever the safety of the rifle is thrown from safe to ready, there 
is a decidedly audible click which is liable to alarm game just at the 
wrong moment. The trigger pull is very good, better than that on 
any other automatic rifle. The complete rifle weighs about yVz 
pounds. Both Lyman and Marble tang, and Lyman receiver sights, 
can be fitted to the rifle. 

REMINGTON-U. M. C. HIGH POWER, SLIDE ACTION SPORTING RIFLE 

This is a high-power, big-game rifle which is operated by means of a 
sliding forearm. It is adapted to the .25, .30, .32, and .35 Remington- 
U. M. C. auto-loading cartridges, and to the .38-40 and .44-40 W. F. C. 
cartridges. The rifle is hammerless, side ejecting, and has a solid 
breech and solid top. A new form of spiral magazine is provided 
which holds the cartridges end to end, and at the same time absolutely 
prevents any bullet in the magazine from coming in contact with the 
primer of the next cartridge ahead. The breech bolt is securely locked 
by a lug on top and near its head. 

The opening movement of the rifle, by pulling the slide to the rear, 
first starts the breech-block open by a powerful wedge action which 
easily starts the tightest shells from the chamber, after which the con- 
tinued backward movement of the slide handle completes the with- 
drawal of the breech-block to the rear, extracting and ejecting the fired 
shell, and taking a new cartridge from the magazine and sliding it up in 
front of the face of the breech-block until it is in the grasp of the 
extractor, and held against the face of the breech-block. The closing 
of the rifle by pulling forward the slide handles moves the breech- 
block forward, forcing the new cartridge into the chamber, and wedges 



66 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



06 



06 



the block up so that the recoil lug seats into its recess in the top wall of 
the receiver, and locks the rifle. 

Three distinct safety devices prevent the firing pin from exploding 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 67 

the cartridge in the chamber until the arm is fully locked. The trigger 
is out of contact with the sear. The sear lock blocks the sear into the 
firing pin notch. The action bar blocks the firing pin from reaching 
the primer until the action bar is in its forward position and locked in 
that position by the action bar lock. Any one of these devices alone 
would be sufficient to insure safety from premature explosion. 

The action is very positive, and much more powerful than one would 
suppose with a slide-operated arm. It is not at all likely to jam, and it 
handles the cartridges very easily and quickly. An action operated 
with the sliding forearm is quite a little quicker than the lever action, 
being excelled in rapidity of fire only by the automatics. The lines of 
the rifle are very good, and it is an attractive appearing weapon. It 
should be particularly good for hunting in thick timber where quick 
shooting is often necessary. The open rear and bead front sights are 
very low lying, being much closer to the barrel than in any other 
rifle on the market. In fact this matter has been very much overdone, 
and the regular factory sights are so close to the barrel that the 
glimmer from the top of the barrel often interferes with clear aim. 
But this is not much of a disadvantage as the riflemen of experience will 
of course remove these sights and replace them with a tang peep sight, 
and an ivory bead front sight of regular height. One slight dis- 
advantage is that there is a slight rattle to the slide handle as one walks 
and this will have to be looked out for when one stalks close to game. 
The sear is unusually long, and as the rifle comes from the factory the 
trigger pull is rather creepy, and it is hard to smooth it down. Barring 
these slight faults the rifle is an excellent one, made of the very best 
materials, and with good workmanship. The action can be almost com- 
pletely dismounted without any tools, in which respect it is way ahead 
of most sporting rifles. It can be strongly recommended to those 
who fancy a rifle operated with sliding forearm action, particularly 
to sportsmen who have been used to using the repeating shotguns 
operated in the same manner. 

The regular factory rifle is made with 22-inch smokeless steel barrel, 
except in .38 and .44 calibers, which have a.22%-inch plain steel barrel: 
The weight is from 6% to 7 pounds. A carbine model is also made 
with 18^-inch barrel weighing 6 1 /£ pounds. The magazine for the .25, 
.30, .32, and .35 Remington-U. M. C. cartridges holds six shots. The 
full magazine of the .38 and .44-caliber models holds eleven shots, and 
the carbine of the same model nine cartridges. The rifle models have 
very good pistol grip stocks with the grip pushed up close to the trigger 



68 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

where it belongs, and shotgun butt-plates. Carbines have straight grip 
stocks. 

DIRECTIONS FOR OPERATING 

These instructions should be followed step by step. Do not run 
ahead of instructions. 

Loading. Open the action by pushing back the fore-end or slide 
handle (if the arm is cocked, press in the unlocking plunger on ex- 
posed side of breech block) and insert cartridge in chamber. Push the 
fore-end or slide handle completely forward, turn the arm over, ex- 
posing the loading door at the under side of action bar just back of the 
fore-end. Insert the nose of a cartridge into the forked front end 
of the loading door, pushing the magazine follower ahead of the bullet. 
Push the cartridge forward completely into magazine, then let go, 
when this first cartridge will immediately be driven backward by the 
magazine spring. The other four cartridges may now be loaded into 
the magazine. 

To load the chamber from the magazine, move the fore-end rear- 
ward to the fullest extent, then completely forward. The fore-end is 
now locked in its forward position until the arm is fired, after which 
the fore-end may be instantly moved backward and forward, again re- 
peating the action. 

To open the breech of the gun without tiring, or whenever firing pin 
is cocked, press the unlocking plunger exposed at right side of breech 
block while starting the fore-end rearward. 

Single loading. Pull slide handle backward to open the breech, in- 
sert the cartridge partially into the chamber, then close breech by pulling 
slide handle completely forward. 

To unload the chamber and magazine. Press unlocking plunger 
while starting the rearward movement of fore-end, complete this rear- 
ward movement to eject the cartridge just withdrawn from the cham- 
ber. Move the action bar forward to about one-quarter inch of its 
foremost position, then backward to the limit, ejecting another car- 
tridge ; continue this until magazine is empty. 

Note. — When emptying the magazine it is convenient to hold the 
thumb forward of the fore-end so as to strike the magazine ring about 
one-quarter inch before the forward limit of movement of the slide han- 
dle or fore-end is attained ; this allows' extreme rapidity in unloading. 

To make the arm safe when cocked. Push safety at rear of trigger 
guard towards the right. To fire, move this safety towards the left. 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



69 



To take down. Grasp the receiver as shown in cut, pressing in 
ahead of the trigger guard (Cut 1). Unscrew the take-down screw 
on left side of receiver and pull out until stopped. (This stop pre- 




vents the screw from being taken clear out of the receiver.) Turn 
gun on left side so that take-down screw will not drop back in. Grasp 
barrel firmly just ahead of receiver with one hand ; place other hand 
on stock just back of receiver. (See Cut No. 2.) Pull guard with 




No. 2 

stock straight down out of receiver, screw take-down screw back into 
the receiver. Assemble in reverse order. 

To remove breech block from receiver. Cock the arm by moving 
slide handle backward and forward. Take down the guard and stock 
from receiver. Press unlocking plunger on right side of breech block 
and pull slide handle completely backward, then turn receiver upside 
dozen. Pull breech block backward with one hand and with the other 
pull slide handle forward to detach action bar from breech block. 
Then move breech block from receiver. 

To reassemble breech block to receiver with receiver upside down, 
as before, lay breech block (with firing pin cocked) with the recoil 
shoulder of breech block in well hole in top of receiver. If the firing 
pin is down so that it projects from the firing pin hole, cock it by 



7o 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



pressing it back with the end of a pencil or similar instrument in- 
serted underneath the action bar lock. Be sure that the recoil 
shoulder is pushed in to the bottom of the well hole. Holding breech 
block in this position with thumb, press the rear end of the ejector ex- 




L<LMl 



No. 3 

posed at the bottom of breech block with index finger. (See cut No. 
3.) Force slide handle and action bar backward with other hand to 
engage action bar with breech block about one-half inch, after which the 
breech block may be pushed forward about half an inch with the fin- 
gers, then pull action bar completely forward. 




\rtinn Hnser! 



Sectional views of high power slide-action rifle 



REMINGTON-U. M. C. .22-CALIBER REPEATING RIFLE 

This is a slide action rifle which operates with a mechanism very simi- 
lar to that of the slide action sporting rifle of the same make, except 
that the magazine is not spiral in form, and the arrangement of sear 
is much better, allowing of a more perfect trigger pull. It is made 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



71 



only in .22-caliber rim fire, rifles being chambered for the .22-short cart- 
ridge only, for the .22-short, .22-long, or .22-long rifle cartridges inter- 
changeably, or for the .22 Winchester rim fire cartridge only. Rifles 
are furnished with 22-inch round barrels or 24-inch octagon barrels, 
and with either straight or pistol grip stocks, and either rifle or shot- 
gun butts. The factory arm is equipped with plain open sights, the 




u 



72. THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

rear sight having a step arrangement for elevation. Lyman or Marble 
peep sights, and all the models of front sights, can be adjusted on 
special order. 

The rifle is modelled on clean, graceful lines, with a fine sweep from 
butt to muzzle, and the weight is very well distributed so that the bal- 
ance is much better than is usually found in American arms. The 
weight varies from 4% to 5V& pounds. The action is positive, and the 
rifle works smoothly and easily with ?«n almost complete freedom from 
jams. It has been in use for a number of years and has always given 
perfect satisfaction. It is probably the most popular .22-caliber re- 
peating rifle on the market today. The breech-block can be removed 
without the use of any tools, and the entire action cleaned ; a very 
necessary matter with a rifle handling outside lubricated, .22-caliber 
cartridges. Removing the breech-block allows the rifle to be cleaned 
and examined from the breech, which is also an important feature. The 
rifle can be taken down for packing in small space. The only criticism 
that can be made of this arm is that it is a little too small for a full- 
sized man. It would be better for sportsmen's use if the stock were 
made full size, and a trifle more weight placed in the barrel. It is an 
excellent rifle for boys, and also, when made to handle the .22 Win- 
chester rim fire cartridge, for a grouse gun to be used around camp 
on trips for big game. 

DIRECTIONS FOR OPERATING 

To load magazine. Press in magazine lever at front end of 
magazine and withdraw inner tube until loading slot is open; the car- 
tridges can then be dropped into the magazine. 

The magazine of the " Standard" grade rifle will hold 15 Short, 12 
Long or 1 1 Long Rifle Cartridges. The magazine of the " Gallery " 
grade rifle will hold 15 Short Cartridges only. Magazine of the " Tar- 
get" grade will hold 15 Short, 12 Long or 11 Long Rifle Cartridges. 
Magazine of No. 12CS holds 9 Remington Special (.22 W. R. F.) 
Cartridges. When the magazine is full, press down the inner tube 
until locked in place. 

The magazine can be emptied without passing the loaded cartridges 
through the action by drawing the inner tube entirely out, when the 
cartridges will drop out of the mouth of the magazine. 

To load the gun. When the action is locked, press up on the front 
end of carrier exposed just in front of the trigger guard while starting 
the backward movement of the slide handle ; move the slide handle 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



73 



smartly backward and forward, which will carry a cartridge into the 
chamber and lock the action ready for firing. The act of firing re- 
leases the action lock, permitting the operator to reload by working 
the slide handle. 

To take dozvn the gun. Unscrew the assembling screw on the left 
hand side of the receiver ; pull screw out until it strikes the stop pin, 
which prevents its dropping from the receiver. 1 







Rifle taken down 

Hold the gun with left side downward to prevent assembling screw 
from dropping back and pull the stock straight back to separate from 
the receiver. Cock the hammer before putting gun together. 

To remove the breech block. After the gun is taken down, pull the 

Sectional views 




Action closed 
1 This take-down screw is not supposed to be detached from the receiver. 



74 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



fore-arm back, at the same time pushing in the little button on the 
bottom of the action bar so that it slides under the edge of the receiver. 
Hold the breech block back and pull the fore-arm forward and the 
breech block can be lifted out. 



REMINGTON-U. M. C. -22-CALIBER AUTO-LOADING RIFLE 

This is a .22-caliber, auto-loading rifle adapted to the ,22 Remington 
auto-loading cartridge, which is almost exactly the same as the .22 
Winchester self-loading cartridge. The mechan- 
ism of the rifle is almost exactly the same as that 
of the .22 Winchester automatic rifle, except that 
the action is operated before the first shot, to 
throw the first cartridge into the chamber, by 
means of a knob on the bolt instead of by an op- 
erating sleeve in front of the forearm. Like the 
Winchester, the magazine is in the butt stock, and 
it is filled in much the same manner by draw- 
ing the magazine follower out through the butt 
plate. The take-down arrangement is a little dif- 
ferent, the barrel and forearm being unscrewed 
entirely from the receiver by means of an inter- 
rupted thread on the breech of the barrel. The 
magazine holds 15 cartridges. 

The rifle is operated by the recoil which forces 
the breech-block to the rear, extracting and eject- 
ing the fired cartridge, and compressing the main- 
spring. The action spring then forces the breech- 
block forward, inserting the cartridge in the 
chamber and closing the action. 

The rifle is an excellent one of its type, being 
full sized, of fine lines, appearance, and balance, 
and the mechanism is sure and positive. It is 
subject to the same criticism as the .22 Winches- 
ter automatic rifle ; namely, that it handles a car- 
tridge loaded only with smokeless powder, and 
while this cartridge is reliable; accurate, and 
pleasant to handle, no way is known of cleaning 
the bore when this cartridge has been fired in it 
which will insure against ultimate ruin from rust. 
The barrel will gradually become pitted, and after 



u 



K 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 75 

extended use the accuracy will deteriorate until it becomes necessary 
to purchase a new barrel. It would seem that it should be possible 
to load these cartridges with Lesmok or semi-smokeless powder and 
avoid this trouble. 

The rifle has a 22-inch, round barrel, cut with 16-inch twist, and a 
straight grip stock. Pistol grip stocks cannot be furnished. The butt 
plate is of steel, a compromise between rifle and shotgun shape. Plain 
open sights, with step device for elevating the rear sight. Lyman and 
Marble peep sights can be attached to the tang. The weight is 5% 
pounds, and the trigger pull very good for an auto-loading rifle. 

DIRECTIONS FOR OPERATING 

To take down. Grasp the receiver and barrel in the right and left 
hands respectively, and with the right thumb, pull back the take-down 




Rifle taken down 



button and unscrew the barrel from the receiver by a quarter-turn. 
The magazine may be left fully or partly loaded if desired. 

To remove breech block. Remove assembling screw in left side 
near end of receiver. Move breech block rearward about halfway 
and pull receiver forward to separate from trigger plate. Move breech 
block fully rearward, insert small end of assembling screw into hole 
in bottom of breech block and release the block so the action spring is 
retained by the screw. The complete breech block and ejector may 
then be removed from the receiver. 

To put rifle together. With the receiver right side up and in the 
right hand and the barrel in the left hand, insert the barrel into the 
receiver so that forearm projects at left side of receiver. Turn fore- 
arm down as far as it will go. 

To load. Push down magazine lock-pin which extends upward into 
hollow near the toe of butt plate. Pull out magazine tube until load- 
ing hole is uncovered. Load magazine with 15 .22 Remington Auto- 
loading cartridges, being very careful to put the cartridges in so that 



76 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



their bullets will be toward the muzzle of the gun. Close and lock 
magazine. Pull operating handle back as far as it will go and allow 
it to snap forward. The rifle is now loaded, cocked and ready for 
action. 

To unload. Pull magazine tube all the way out of magazine, pour 
the cartridges out and replace the magazine tube. With the safety on, 
pull operating handle back and allow it to snap forward twice to eject 
the cartridge in the chamber and the one in the action. 

To operate safety. The safety is the button in the trigger guard 
just in front of the trigger. Pushing this button to the right locks 
the trigger, making the arm safe. Pushing to the left throws off the 
safety and the rifle is ready to fire. When the safety is on and the rifle 
is locked, the letter " S " appears to the left of the button, showing that 
the rifle is safe. 

Sectional views 




Action open 




Action closed 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 77 

SAVAGE REPEATING RIFLE, MODEL 1899 

This is a box-magazine, lever-action rifle. Inside the magazine recess 
of the receiver is a circular brass magazine which holds the cart- 
ridges separated in a circular position from each other so that they 
are not touching. The cartridges are pressed into the magazine one at 
a time, and when filled the magazine revolves, presenting each cartridge 
in turn in front of the breech bolt as the action is operated. The rifle 
is operated by a finger lever which withdraws the breech bolt, extract- 
ing and ejecting the fired shell to the right. As the lever is closed, it 
carries the breech bolt forward, forcing the topmost cartridge from 
the magazine into the chamber. During the closing of the bolt the sear 
engages the hammer or cocking piece, and as the rifle is closed the 
mainspring is compressed, making the rifle ready to fire. Just as the 
breech bolt is closed, its rear end rises to abutt against the top of the 
receiver just in rear of the cartridge opening, and the breech bolt is 
thus wedged between the rear of the receiver opening and the rear of 
the chamber, and thus supported against the recoil. An examination 
of the sectional cuts of the mechanism will make this plain. 




Fig. g 
Savage repeating rifle, Model 1899, with Lyman No. 30^ rear sight and 22-inch 

barrel 

The number of cartridges in the magazine is always indicated by 
numerals which appear in a recess on the left side of the receiver. An 
indicator on top of the receiver shows whether the rifle is cocked or not ; 
the indicator, in the shape of a small pin, projecting above the surface 
of the receiver when the rifle is cocked, and can be both seen and felt. 
The safety is just in rear of the trigger guard, between the guard proper 
and the loop of the lever, and is put to safe by pressing it forward, 
when it both blocks the trigger and locks the finger lever against open- 
ing. The action can be closed without cocking the rifle by holding back 
on the trigger when closing the lever, when the mainspring will not be 
compressed. To operate the rifle as a single loader, holding the maga- 
zine in reserve, simply press the single cartridge down on the topmost 
cartridge in the magazine and close the lever. 



78 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

The mechanism is extremely simple and very reliable. I have never 
heard of a jam with a Savage rifle except when some foreign substance 
happened to get into the magazine. The action is a very strong one, 
considering that the breech bolt is supported against the explosion at the 
rear, and it has successfully withstood the 50,000 pounds breech pres- 
sure exerted by the .250-3000 Savage cartridge. At this pressure, how- 
ever, there is a little spring to the bolt, and cartridges fired with the full 
charge have the shells so stretched that they cannot be successfully re- 
loaded. 

The rifle is made in both solid frame and take-down styles, the 
former being always preferable on account of its much better accuracy. 
It is also made in a number of different styles with various lengths and 
weights of barrels, from 25 inches to the 20-inch carbine, and in feath- 
erweight models. The balance of the rifle is very good indeed, particu- 
larly if made with a 22-inch barrel, pistol grip, and shotgun butt. The 
design of the stock is very good, but is about half an inch too short to 
fit the average man correctly. The drop at the comb and heel are just 
about right. 

The best rear sight for the Savage rifle is the Lyman No. 30% tang 
peep sight with both elevation and windage adjustments. With a rifle 
having a 22-inch barrel, one point change on the elevation scale will 
move the point of impact 6.15 inches on the target at 100 yards, and 
proportionately at all other ranges. One point change on the wind- 
gauge scale will similarly move the point of impact 2.46 inches at 100 
yards. This sight can be screwed right on the rifle by any one, screw 
holes being already tapped on the upper tang of the receiver for it. 

The Savage Model 1899 rifle is made for the following cartridges : 

.22 Savage high power. 

.25-35 Winchester center fire. * 

.250-3000 Savage high power. 

.30-30 Winchester center fire. 

.303 Savage high power. 

.32-40 high and low power. 

.38-55 high and low power. 

All barrels are made of the same special smokeless steel that is used in 
United States Government arms. The Savage barrels made during the 
past nine years at least have been most excellent, the three which I 
possess at the present time showing excellent finish, calibration, and 
straightness, and giving fine accuracy. I consider this rifle an ex- 
ceedingly reliable and durable arm. I have seen a number of them in 
the mountain wilderness of northern British Columbia which have been 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



79 



in use for over fifteen years, subjected to the hardest kind of usage 
without developing a single defect. The only fault ever found with 
this action, to my knowledge, is that if anything falls into the magazine, 
like pine needles or small twigs, it is almost impossible to get it out 
without dismounting the magazine, and that is a very difficult operation 
to perform in the woods. On the other hand, the action shuts up so 
tightly when closed that the chance of anything getting in is very re- 
mote. The rifle lends itself well to extreme rapidity of fire, being 
almost equal to the Model 1886 Winchester in this respect, as the lever 
works very easily and has a very short throw. The stock is secured to 
the receiver by a long, heavy screw which passes through the center of 
the grip of the stock, being screwed into the receiver from a hole 
through the stock under the butt plate. This screw greatly strengthens 
the stock at the grip, its weakest point, and considerably adds to the 
ability of the rifle to withstand the hard knocks of real wilderness work. 

SAVAGE RIFLE. Model 1899. 



=E~i-7- 



m 





Action closed 




¥ YBf S^g^gsKgll^p-*^ 


A. 


Finger-lever 




gL M Wj'^^Sf^ 


B. 


Catch on automatic cut-off 




^ ;^jggjSp«i 


C. 


Automatic cut-off 






E. 


Breech-bolt 




^^^^g»»^ 


F. 


Extractor 






G. 


Magazine carrier 


P. 


Sear screw- 


H. 


Projection on receiver for finger- 


R. 


Trigger 




lever. 


S. 


Trigger safety projection 


K. 


Sear 


U. 


Recoil shoulder 


N. 


Hammer 


V. 


Trigger and lever lock 


0. 


Main spring 


Y. 


Indicator 



Rifle Model 1899 is manufactured with the new hammer indicator. 

When the hammer is at full cock the indicator }* projects above the breech- 
bolt; when the rifle is fired or the hammer is down, the indicator is flush with 
the top of the breech-bolt. 

To dismount the rifle. Remove the butt plate, unscrew the butt stock 
screw with a long screw-driver, preferably held in a brace, and remove 
the butt stock by pulling it to the rear. Open the finger lever to its 
fullest extent. Remove the trigger spring screw, trigger spring, bolt- 
stop screw, and bolt stop. Remove the finger lever bushing screw, and 
push out the finger lever bushing. Displace finger lever at pivot joint. 
Withdraw the breech bolt. Remove trigger pin, punching the same 



8o 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM. Model 1899. 



,-:•■■-,, ,. t^i^ 


): ■..■ "."■-■ r£ 


=p 




il» 


f 




Action open 

A. Finger-lever 

B. Catch on automatic cut-off 

C. Automatic cut-off 

D. Breech-opening 

E. Breech-bolt 
G. Magazine carrier 
H. Projection on receiver for finger 

lever. 
K. Sear 
L. . Retractor 
N. Hammer 
P. Sear screw 



Trigger 

Trigger safety pro- 

j ection 
Recoil shoulder 
Trigger and lever 

lock 



out from left to right; remove the sear screw, and take out the sear 
and trigger. Take out the finger lever, remove the trigger and lever 
lock. Remove the forearm screw and forearm, or else remove the bar- 
rel in a take-down rifle. Unscrew the magazine spindle screw and re- 
move it free from the receiver. Remove the magazine carrier and 
magazine spindle, and then remove automatic cut-off and spring. 

To dismount the breech-bolt. Remove the hammer bushing screw, 
pull out the hammer with the mainspring, punch out the firing pin 
securing pin, unscrew the firing pin, and remove the retractor screw. 
Punch out the extractor pin from top to bottom ; the extractor will then 
be free. To separate the magazine spindle and the magazine carrier, 
pull the magazine spindle out of the magazine carrier ; the magazine 
spring can then be removed. 

To assemble the rifle. Replace the parts in the reverse order from 
that given for dismounting, keeping in mind the following points : 
Replace the automatic cut-off and spring. Replace the magazine car- 
rier, magazine spindle, and magazine spring together, and give tension 
to magazine carrier by turning the spindle with a screw-driver from 
right to left. Insert the spindle screw. Do not give too high a tension 
to magazine spring, as it will make the loading of cartridges into the 
magazine unnecessarily hard. In replacing the retractor in the breech 
bolt be sure that the retractor is in retracting position (as shown in cut 
of action open) before replacing hammer and bolt. 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



81 



THE .22-CALIBER SAVAGE REPEATING RIFLE, MODEL I914 

This is a .22-caliber repeating rifle of the trombone or sliding fore- 
arm type, having a tubular magazine, hammerless action, with solid 
breech, and top and with side ejection. All the moving parts are 
enclosed in the receiver. The safety is of the shotgun type and is 
located on top of the tang, immediately in front of the grip. The rifle 
can be taken down by removing the assembling screw on the right side 
of the receiver. It handles the .22-short, .22-long, and .22-long rifle 
cartridges indiscriminately without change of mechanism, but the .22- 
long rifle is the cartridge which should always be used, as the use of the 
.22-short will sooner or later result in the burning out of the chamber 
and consequently the ruination of the barrel, and the .22-long cartridge 
is an inferior one. 




The .22-caliber Savage repeating rifle, Model 1914. 




Rifle taken down 
for convenience in 
cleaning or carrying 



This rifle is particularly pleasing in its outline. It has a most ex- 
cellent pistol grip stock, which is full sized, a matter often overlooked 
in the .22-caliber repeating rifles. The pistol grip is well curved and 
pushed up close to the trigger guard, as it should be. The shotgun 
safety can be operated much faster than the trigger guard type usually 
seen on these rifles, and is always in sight, showing clearly at all times 
whether the rifle is safe or ready. The action slide handle is long and 
well shaped, like a regular forearm. The action is safe, sure, and 
positive. Altogether this is one of the very best .22-caliber rifles on 
the market, and can be particularly recommended to the rifleman who 
wishes a light, .22-caliber repeater but dislikes the other models because 



82 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

of the fact that they are made in a size suitable only for boys. Lyman 
and Marble rear peep sights can be fitted to the tang, and all the regular 
front sights can also be placed on the rifle. 

To load the rifle. Turn the thumb piece at the forward end of the 
tubular magazine one quarter turn to the right and draw out the fol- 
lower tube until the loading window is open. Drop cartridges, bullet 
ends up, through the loading window down into the magazine until 
filled. Then push the follower tube home into the magazine, and lock 
the thumb piece by giving it a quarter turn to the left. After filling 
the magazine, draw the slide handle back fully to the rear, and push 
it quickly forward again. The rifle is now loaded and cocked, and 
may be fired by pressing the trigger. To reload, repeat the operation 
of pulling back the action slide and pushing it forward quickly again. 
When the rifle is loaded and cocked, if the rifleman does not wish to 
fire immediately, but wants to have it in a perfectly safe condition yet 
ready for instant use, the safety must be drawn back with the thumb 
until the word " safe " appears. In this condition the firing mechanism 
is locked and the rifle may be carried without the least danger. Upon 
pushing forward the safety, the arm may be fired at once by simply 
pulling the trigger. Besides the safety, the rifle also has a hammer 
indicator, a small pin in the center of the safety, which shows the posi- 
tion of the hammer. When this protrudes (" sticks up "), the hammer 
is down and the rifle uncocked. When it is flush with the safety, the 
hammer is cocked. 

To unload the rifle. Remove the loaded cartridge from the barrel 
by releasing (pressing up) the action slide lock and bringing back the 
slide handle. Leave the slide handle back and then pull the magazine 
follower tube entirely out of the magazine. By turning the rifle muzzle 
down the cartridges will drop out. This leaves a cartridge in the car- 
rier. Push the action slide fully forward, press up on the action slide 
lock, and pull the slide handle back again. The rifle is now empty. 

To put the rifle together. Remove the assembling screw on the 
right side of the receiver. Push back the hammer until cocked. Press 
up the action slide lock (at the forward end of the receiver where the 
magazine tube joins it) and push back the slide handle until rear end 
of action slide becomes flush with the rear end of receiver. Engage 
rounded projection at front end of butt half of the receiver with the 
rounded recess on the left side of the barrel portion of the receiver. 
Press the barrel receiver and butt receiver together until the lug on the 
top and rear of the barrel receiver enters and locks in the notch in the 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 83 

top of the butt receiver just in front of the safety. Screw the as- 
sembling screw home through the hole in the barrel receiver into the 
stock receiver. Hold trigger back and push slide handle forward so as 
to leave the rifle uncocked. To take down, simply reverse the order of 
putting the rifle together. 

To clean the rifle. Take the rifle down and open the action half- 
way by pressing up on the action slide lock and pushing back the slide 
handle. Pick the breech bolt off its stud on the action slide with the 
fingers. The barrel can now be cleaned and inspected from the breech, 
and all parts of the action can be wiped off and oiled. The action 
should be kept lightly oiled and free from bullet lubricant. 

THE SAVAGE HIGH-POWER, BOLT-ACTION RIFLE 

This is the latest rifle made in the United States at the time of going 
to press of this work. It is constructed on the Mauser system, and 




Fig. 10 
The Savage high-power, bolt-action rifle 

is adapted to the .250-3000 Savage high-power cartridge. The mechan- 
ism is almost identical to that of the Mauser. The right side of the 
bridge of the receiver is divided, and the bolt handle fits down between 
the two portions of the bridge, thus forming a safety lug in lieu of the 
ordinary safety lug on the rear of the bolt barrel in Mauser rifles. The 
two locking lugs at the head of the bolt are approximately the same 
size as those on the Model 1903 rifle, and perfectly support the cart- 
ridge against the force of the explosion. The cartridge is so well 
supported that there is no stretching of fired shells such as occurs in 
the Model 1899 Savage action for this cartridge, and consequently shells 
fired with the full charge can be reloaded without resizing except at the 
neck. The sear acts as the bolt stop. To remove the bolt from the 
rifle, pull back on the trigger as the bolt is pulled to the rear. The re- 
mainder of the dismounting is done in exactly the same manner as with 
the U. S. Model 1903 rifle. The safety is on top of the tang and 
operates in exactly the same manner as the safety on a double hammer- 
less shotgun. This is an enormous advantage for a sporting arm, as the 



84 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

rifle can be gotten ready for firing much faster than with the ordinary 
bolt action safety on the sleeve. The barrel is 22 inches long, beauti- 
fully tapered, and in all respects the same as the barrel of this caliber 
on the Model 1899 rifle. The stock measures 13^ inches long, drop at 
comb 1T6 inches, drop at heel 3 inches. These are the measurements 
which comes nearest to fitting the average man. It is the best fitting 
factory stock made on any American rifle, and has an excellent pistol 
grip stock of exactly the right shape and location. The aluminum butt 
plate is of the correct shape, with just enough hollow to cause it to 
stick tightly to the shoulder when the bolt is worked in rapid fire. It is 
sharply checked to prevent slipping on the shoulder, and has a large 
trap door in it with recess in the butt stock, so that a field cleaner, etc., 
can be kept in the butt. It is undoubtedly the best butt plate made in 
America, and I predict that a large number of them will be sold to be 
placed on other made to order stocks. The sights ordinarily furnished 
are a bright metal bead front sight, and the ordinary step, open rear 
sight. The rear sight, however, has screw adjustment for windage, a 
flat top, and an excellent " U " shaped notch, making it very satisfactory 
for those who prefer open sights. The cocking piece on the rear end 
of the firing pin is so shaped that it should be an easy matter to fit a 
Lyman peep sight to it. The peep sight so placed should be in exactly 
the right location for most effective work. When the rifle is cocked the 
sight will be back near the eye where it should be in aiming, but as 
the rifle is fired the cocking piece will fly forward, taking the sight with 
it, and thus moving the sight forward so that it cannot strike the eye in 
recoil. The balance of the rifle is absolutely perfect. The arm weighs 
just seven pounds, is very handy to carry, comes up perfectly, and will 
prove a quick and handy arm. Fortunately this rifle is made in solid 
frame, and the accuracy should be superior to that of the Model 1899 
Savage using the same cartridge. An accuracy test of ten groups of 
ten shots each, fired at 100 yards, rest, open sights, gave an average 
group measure of 3.12 inches. This test would undoubtedly have shown 
a better average had the rifle been equipped with peep sights, as my 
error of aim is considerably greater with open than with peep sights. 
I should say that with peep sights I would be able to get groups at 100 
yards averaging at least 2.50 inches, which is as close as I can get with 
the Model 1903 rifle and the best ammunition. I predict that this little 
rifle will quickly become easily the most popular rifle in America for 
medium game shooting. 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 85 

MARLIN REPEATING RIFLES, MODELS 1893, 1 894, AND 1895 



H s ; 



I 




u 



The action of all three of these rifles is practically the same, the 
models being adapted to different classes of cartridges. The Model 
1893 handles and .25-36 Marlin, the .30-30 Winchester, .32-40, .32 
Winchester special, and .38-55 cartridges. The Model 1894 handles 
the .25-20 repeater, .32-20, .38-40, and .44-40 cartridges. The Model 



86 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



1895 handles the .38-56-255, .40-65-260, .40-70-330, .40-82-260, 
.45-70, and 45-90 black powder cartridges, and the .33 W. C. F. high 
power cartridge. These rifles are all tubular magazine, lever-action re- 
peaters, and differ from the Winchester repeating rifles principally in 
having a solid top to the receiver, and in ejecting the fired shells to the 
right side. The locking bolt does not project so that it can be seen, 
but enters a cut on the under side of the breech bolt near the rear of the 
latter, and supports about half of it. It slides in vertical grooves cut 
in the inside walls of the receiver, and gives the breech bolt very good 
support. The safety arrangement differs considerably from the usual 
arrangement. The firing pin is cut completely in two towards the rear 
end, and when the action is closed and locked these two pieces are 
brought up by the locking bolt into a direct line and practically form one 
piece. The slightest movement of the finger lever draws back the 
firing pin, the locking bolt is lowered, and the front end of the rear por- 
tion of the firing pin drops down in the slot in the breech bolt where it 
is held back positively, and it is impossible to drive it forward until the 
breech bolt is closed and the locking bolt has risen to the fully locked 
position. 

It is understood that the manufacture of these models has ceased, 
due to the factory being given over entirely to the manufacture of war 
material, and it is probable that it will never be resumed, a more modern 
rifle probably taking its place. However, as there are a great number 
of these rifles in the hands of sportsmen throughout the country, where 
they are giving excellent service, it has been thought best to include a 
description of it, and particularly to give directions as to its dismount- 
ing and assembling before these directions are entirely out of print. 




A — Lever 

B — Ejector 

C — Trigger 

D — Carrier 

E — Locking bolt 

F — Hammer 

H — Carrier rocker 

I — Breech bolt 

K — Extractor 



Cut showing section of rifle — action open 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



87 



To assemble the arm. If the loading spring cover and carrier block 
are out, put these in first. Slide in the locking bolt, put on the trigger 
plate and screw in the trigger plate screw. Replace the hammer and 
screw in the hammer screw. Place ejector in its slot, being sure that 
the Hat spring side is down in the slot (some shooters place it up-side 
down). Slide in the breech bolt about two thirds of the way and put 
in the lever, being careful to see that it fits up into the breech bolt as 
illustrated in the cuts. Screw in the lever screw. Swing the main 
spring into position and replace the buttstock. 

To remove the magazine. It is necessary merely to take out the 
magazine tube stud screw and the two forearm tip screws. The entire 
magazine forearm tip and forearm can then be removed. 




Cut showing section of rifle — action closed 

To dismount the arm. Take out the tang screw and remove the butt- 
stock. Swing the main spring to one side, thus removing all pressure 
from the hammer screw ; take out the hammer screw and remove the 
hammer. Remove the lever screw and lever ; the breech bolt can then 
be drawn out. Take out the trigger plate screw at the front end of the 
trigger plate and the screw on left side of receiver, when the trigger 
plate and locking bolt may be removed. As all of these screws have 
practically the same size head, it will be observed that a single screw- 
driver is the only tool necessary to dismount the rifle conveniently. If 
desired, the carrier and likewise the loading spring cover may be re- 
moved, as the screws holding these are on the right side of the action. 

To take apart the breech bolt. Drive out the extractor pin; the ex- 
tractor can then be removed. Drive out the pin holding the rear part 
of the firing pin, which can then be removed ; also drive out the front 



88 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

firing-pin pin ; this part of the firing pin and the firing-pin spring can 
then be removed. In driving out these pins, drive from the bottom of 
the breech bolt. In driving in, drive from the top. 

MARLIN MODEL 1 897 RIFLE 

This is a lever-action, 22-caliber rifle , adapted to the .22-long rifle 





Marlin Model 1897 rifle, taken apart 



cartridge. The action is quite similar to the other 
Marlin lever-action rifles, except that it is made to 
take down by removing a thumb screw on the right 
side of the receiver. The barrel and magazine, left 
side of the receiver, and the breech bolt then separate 
from the stock and right side of the receiver, includ- 
ing guard and finger lever. The rifle is taken apart 
with the bolt closed, by first Cocking the hammer, 
then unscrewing the thumb screw on the right side 
of the receiver, and moving the butt portion to the 
right, and barrel portion to the left. The breech 
bolt may easily be removed for inspecting the bore 
or for cleaning the bore from the breech, by sliding 
the bolt back as far as it will go, when it can be 
lifted out. The rifle is put together again by re- 
versing the operation. 

The magazine is filled through a loading hole on 
the under side of the tubular magazine in front of 
the forearm. Take a hold of the end of the maga- 
zine tube and draw the outer tube straight out until 
the loading hole is open, drop in the cartridges, and 
close the tube. 

The rifle is regularly made with a 24-inch barrel, 
either round or octagon, and weighs about 6 pounds. 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 89 

It can be had with either straight or pistol grip stocks. Lyman sights 
can be applied to the tang as in other models of lever-action rifles. 

This rifle has for a number of years been' the favorite .22-caliber re- 
peater with riflemen who wish such an arm to be full size, and also 
to have a lever action so that when they come to change to their larger 
rifles there will not be such a difference in manipulation. It is an excel- 
lent arm for the sportsman who owns a high-power, lever-action rifle, 
and desires to get cheap practice between hunting trips. The action is 
not quite as positive as some of the more modern .22-caliber repeaters, 
and jams occasionally occur. No grave consequences, however, at- 
tend a jam with a .22-caliber rifle, and many sportsmen are only too 
willing to overlook this fault in order to obtain a man-sized, lever- 
action, .22-caliber repeater. The arm balances and handles well, and is 
a beautiful appearing little arm. It may be used with the .22-short 
and .22-long cartridges, as well as the .22-long rifle, but the continued 
use of the first two cartridges will ultimately ruin the chamber of the 
rifle, and there is absolutely no excuse for using them as they are less 
accurate and less powerful. 

THE STEVENS IDEAL RIFLE 

This is a single shot rifle with a falling block action somewhat similar 
to the Winchester single shot. The action is operated by means of the 
finger lever. When the finger lever is thrown down, the breech-block 
first slides down a short distance and then rocks to the rear, exposing 
the chamber for loading or cleaning. During the latter portion of the 
opening movement of the breech-block it bears upon the extractor, 




The Stevens Ideal rifle. "Walnut Hill" Model 

forcing the latter to the rear, and withdrawing the shell about one- 
fourth inch from the chamber so that it can easily be withdrawn by 
hand. The first opening movement withdraws the firing pin, which is 
held back until the rifle is closed. The closing movement of the finger 
lever rocks the breech-block forward, pressing the cartridge into place, 
then slides the block slightly upward into its slot in the receiver, and at 



go 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



the same time brings the hammer to half cock. To make the rifle ready 
for firing it is then necessary to cock the hammer. 

The Ideal rifle is adapted to the following cartridges : .22-short, 
.22-long rifle, and .22 Winchester rim fire, .25 Stevens rim fire, .22- 
15-60 Stevens center fire, .25-20, .25-21 Stevens, .25-25 Stevens, 
.28-30-120 Stevens, .32-20, .32-40, and .38-55. It is made only with 
the ordinary steel barrels, and for black or low-pressure cartridges. All 
rifles have the take-down feature, the barrel screwing into the re- 
ceiver in the regular manner, but the thread being eased up so that it 
can readily be screwed in or unscrewed by hand. A taper pin screws 
into the bottom of the receiver under the barrel and retains the barrel 
tightly screwed up into place. Barrels are almost all of the octagonal 
or half octagonal shape, and may be had in several weights, so as to 
make the complete rifle weigh from 7 to 11 pounds. 




ACTION 



s. s. 



Breech mechanism of the Stevens Ideal rifle. Breech closed 

The manufacture of this rifle was stopped several years ago at the 
start of the Great War, when the plant of the J. Stevens Arms and Tool 
Company was given over entirely to the production of war munitions. 
It is not known whether it will ever be placed on the market again or 
not. It was quite a popular rifle, particularly among Schuetzen rifle- 
men, and among the various small bore clubs. The rifle was rather 
roughly manufactured, the various parts were not strictly interchange- 
able, and the best of materials were not always used, although the rifle 
always had plenty of safety margin for the cartridges it was designed to 
handle. But the barrels were almost always superbly accurate, and 
many fine scores have been made with Stevens rifles. This was par- 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 91 

ticularly true of rifles chambered for the .22-long rifle cartridge. Many 
of these rifles are still in use among the various small-bore clubs in the 
country, doing excellent work, and showing accuracy inferior to none 
except Pope barrels. The design of the rifle was fine, and it is to be 
regretted that it was not better made, better materials used, and that its 
manufacture was discontinued. 



THE ROSS, MODEL 10, STRAIGHT PULL SPORTING RIFLE 

This is a Canadian rifle, manufactured by the Ross Rifle Company of 
Quebec. It is largely advertised and sold in the United States. It is a 
bolt action rifle, but differs considerably from the ordinary Mauser type 
in that in operating it it is only necessary to pull the bolt straight to the 
rear, no turning up or down of the bolt handle being necessary. The 
Ross bolt consists of two distinct portions : the bolt itself ; and the bolt 
sleeve, carrying the bolt handle and the safety bolt. The bolt is a steel 
cylinder about 4V2 inches long. On the bolt head are the two lock- 
ing lugs in the shape of interrupted screw threads. These lugs are %e- 
inch deep — from the top of the lug down to the bolt. Into the lugs 
are cut portions of an interrupted thread, %2-inch deep. The bottom 
lug, when the bolt is in its locked position, has three cuts in it, making 
four segments of the thread to lock into the receiver. The opposite lug 
has two cuts, making three of the thread segments. In the receiver 
walls are cut corresponding sections of threads into which these bolt 
head sections lock firmly when the bolt is revolved. The main locking 
shoulders of the lugs turn down against shoulders in the receiver, form- 
ing an additional lock similar to the ordinary system of bolt locking. 
Along the rear three inches of the bolt spindle are cut two helicoid ribs, 
terminating at the rear in sections of an interrupted screw. These ribs, 
working in corresponding grooves in the bolt sleeve, form the means 
by which the Ross bolt is revolved. Between the two locking lugs of 
the bolt is cut a gas escape hole, through which gas may escape in the 
case of a punctured primer. 




o 



Fig. 11 
The Ross .280 sporting rifle, Model 10 



92 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

The bolt sleeve is a hollow cylinder carrying the extractor, the bolt 
handle, and at its rear end the safety bolt. It is about 5^ inches 
long. Along either side run the guide grooves which engage ribs in the 
receiver and make the sleeve run perfectly true and smooth: These 
ribs prevent the sleeve from turning. Inside the sleeve works the bolt 
proper, the spiral — helicoid — ribs on the bolt spindle engaging in 
corresponding grooves on the inside of the sleeve. When the sleeve, 
carrying the bolt, is pushed forward until forward motion of the bolt 
is stopped by the head of the receiver, the sleeve continues forward, 
and its grooves, acting on the ribs of the bolt, compel the bolt to revolve, 
engaging the locking lugs in their corresponding cuts in the receiver. 
Thus a straight pull backward and forward of the bolt sleeve causes the 
bolt to revolve into and out of its engagement with the locking threads 
in the receiver. When the bolt and sleeve are drawn together to the 
rear the extractor on the side of the sleeve, engaged with the head of 
the shell, draws the empty shell to the rear until the ejector can strike 
it on the left side of the head, ejecting the shell out on the right side of 
the receiver. A familiar application of this straight pull system is the 
spiral screw-driver, in which a push forward on the handle compels 
the blade of the tool to turn, driving in or turning out the screw. 




Top view of Ross rifle action, showing bolt open 

The magazine is almost exactly the same as the familiar Mauser 
magazine. When the bolt is fully pulled to the rear, the top cartridge 
in the magazine rises slightly and is thus presented in front of the bolt 
head, so that the bolt in moving forward pushes it from the magazine 
into the chamber. There is a magazine cut-off on the left side of the 
receiver which operates exactly like the cut-off on the U. S. Model 
1903 (Springfield) rifle. When the cut-off is turned down, the maga- 
zine is cut off and held in reserve, and the rifle can then be used as a 
single loader with no reference to the cartridges in the magazine. 
When the cut-off is turned up, the cartridges feed from the magazine 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 93 

into the chamber as the bolt is worked back and forth. When the 
cut-off is placed half way between " on " and " off," the bolt can be 
pulled to the rear completely out of the receiver. 

The trigger pull mechanism is very simple and ingenious. There is 
the usual safety pull seen in most bolt action rifles, the trigger moving 
to the rear about Vs inch against the pressure of the sear spring. After 
this is taken up the trigger has a very clean pull of about 3 pounds, 
absolutely free from creep. In fact I consider the trigger pull on the 
Ross the best of all the bolt action rifles, as it always comes from the 
factory in excellent shape and does not require any refining as do almost 
all other bolt action triggers. 

Many persons have thought the Ross action unsafe because the bolt 
pulled straight to the rear to open the action, without the familiar turn 
up and down motions. An examination of the mechanism will show 
that there is absolutely no foundation for such a belief. There is abso- 
lutely no tendency for pressure on the bolt head to unlock the bolt. 
In fact it is a mechanical impossibility so to unlock it. On account of 
the size of the various parts, the distribution of metal in the bolt and 
receiver, and the interrupted screw system of the locking lugs, I con- 
sider the Ross to be the safest and strongest action on the market today 
so far as ability to withstand the explosion of the cartridge is concerned. 

The Mauser system of turning up and down of the bolt causes 
the first opening movement of the bolt, and its final closing move- 
ment, to be actuated by a powerful cam. This cam motion gives 
great force to the final insertion, and first extraction of a cartridge 
into and out of the chamber. Should the cartridge stick in the 
chamber, or should there be a little dirt in the chamber, this power 
will adequately take care of it and no trouble will be found in the 
insertion or extraction of cartridges. The Ross action is not as 
powerful in this respect, and therein lies its one fault — its lack of 
power to insert and extract oversized cartridges, or cartridges that 
stick. In the two Ross rifles that I have owned I have experienced 
considerable trouble from this source. Both of these rifles have been 
.280 caliber. The .280 fired shell seems to stick firmly in the chamber 
at times, and then one has considerable trouble in opening the rifle, 
due to the lack of ability to apply the same power that can be ap- 
plied by the Mauser system with its powerful cams. 

The Ross is an extremely quick action. It can be operated almost 
twice as fast as the ordinary bolt action, and it is very easy to 
operate it while retaining the rifle at the shoulder in rapid fire. In 



94 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

.303 caliber it works easily and very smoothly, as the .303 shells 
do not seem to have the same tendency to stick in the chamber that 
the .280 shells do. 




Fig. 13 
Side view of Ross rifle action, bolt closed 

This rifle is generally made in two calibers : the .280 Ross, and 
the .303 British. A few rifles have been made for the .30-caliber 
Model 1906 and .35 Winchester center fire cartridges. The .280 
Ross, particularly, is a cartridge of extremely high velocity, about 
3050 feet per second, and of very flat trajectory. It is loaded with a 
142 grain, pointed, copper-tube, expanding bullet for big game shooting, 
and with a 180 grain, pointed full- jacketed bullet for long range target 
shooting. The long-range target cartridge has a velocity of about 
2800 feet per second and is very accurate, and a most satisfactory car- 
tridge for military target shooting, combining accuracy, flat trajectory, 
and the minimum of wind deflection. The sporting cartridge is not 
a particularly accurate one, groups running from 8^4 to 12^/2 inches 
at 200 yards. This is to be greatly regretted as its great killing power, 
very flat trajectory, and high velocity make it very desirable, par- 
ticularly for long range game shooting. 

A large amount of attention has been devoted to the exterior 
shape and dimensions of the .280 Ross barrel. Effort has been 
made to make its whip or movement when fired such that it will 
discharge a cartridge with a slight under-charge of powder at a 
slightly higher barrel elevation, or higher point in its flip, than it 
does a normal cartridge. The idea is to start a bullet flying at a 
slightly smaller velocity from the muzzle at a very slightly greater 
elevation so as to compensate for the lower point of impact. In 
practice it is found that practically all cartridges may vary as much 
as 20 feet over or under in velocity, notwithstanding the fact that 
the powder charges weigh exactly the same, and this the Ross Com- 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 95 

pany have endeavored to allow for in the shape and peculiar vibration 
of their barrels. The manufacturers claim superior accuracy from 
this arrangement. I have never seen this actually proved in tests, but 
at any rate it does not injure the accuracy. 

At the beginning of the Great War the Canadian troops were all 
armed with the Ross .303 rifle. These rifles have now been all dis- 
placed by the Enfield among the Canadian troops in France, the 
Ross only being used for the purpose of training the troops in 
Canada before they are sent to Europe. There were several reasons 
for thus displacing the Ross : First, and probably foremost, was 
the desire, in fact the necessity, of having all the troops of the 
English Empire armed with one rifle in order to simplify the matters 
of supply, repair, and issue of small parts. It is said that the Ross 
did not stand up well in the trenches in comparison with the En- 
field. The bolt is rather difficult to take apart for cleaning, and the 
whole rifle itself is rather more difficult to keep clean and in smooth 
working order than the Enfield. This was of considerable importance 
in trench warfare where the rifles were at almost all times sub- 
jected to the maximum of dirt and mud. The power exerted by the 
mechanism to insert or extract oversized or slightly deformed 
cartridges, or to operate the action when it was dirty, did not com- 
pare favorably with the Enfield. In theory the action is fine, but 
in practice, particularly under the severe conditions of military 
service, it could not stand up with the ideal Mauser type of action. 
It is, however, as powerful and as reliable as any of the lever action 
rifles, and practically the only trouble with it in the hands of sports- 
men has arisen from the tendency of fired shells in .280 caliber to 
stick very tightly in the chamber on occasions. For example, in the 
firing of 100 rounds of .280 cartridges on the target range under 
the most favorable conditions, six shells stuck tightly enough to 
bother one a lot in rapid fire, and four stuck so tightly that it was 
necessary to place the butt of the rifle on the ground and open the 
breech by means of the heel of the shoe applied to the bolt handle. 

THE NEWTON HIGH POWER RIFLE 

This is a bolt action rifle, quite similar to the Mauser rifle, but 
with a number of important improvements which fit it more par- 
ticularly for sportsman's use. It is essentially a sportsman's weapon 
intended for large game shooting. It differs from the Mauser in the 
following points : Instead of having solid locking lugs at the head 



96 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

of the bolt, the Newton has lugs of the interrupted screw type, quite 
a little stronger than the solid lugs, but more liable to accumulate 
dirt. The safety is placed on the side of the sleeve instead of on 
top, and more readily operated than is the Mauser type. When 
in the safe position the thumb piece stands vertical, and is moved 
to ready by turning it to the rear so that it stands 45 degrees below 
the horizontal. The bolt handle turns well down at the side of the 
stock and is more refined in shape. The bolt stop is very ingeniously 
arranged and is operated by the front trigger. Pulling the trigger 
to the rear when starting to open the bolt operates the stop so that 
the bolt can be withdrawn completely from the receiver. The maga- 
zine floor plate is hinged at the front end, and retained in posi- 
tion by a spring stud in rear. When the floor plate is open it acts 
as a screw-driver for the front take-down screw. Turning the floor 
plate around unscrews this screw. The tang screw in rear of the 
trigger guard is then unscrewed and the stock and magazine separate 
from the barrel and receiver, permitting the rifle to be packed in 
small space. Provided the screws are always kept screwed up very 
tight, this method of take-down is not open to the same objections 
as all other methods of take-down, as it is really only a removal of 
the stock. The rifle has double set triggers that are much more 
reliable than those usually seen. The regular length of barrels is 
24 inches. The whole arm is well proportioned, well balanced, and 
light. 

Right side view 





Left side view 
Newton high-power rifle 

The Newton rifle is adapted to the .22-, .256-, .30-, and .35-caliber 
Newton high-power cartridges, and to the .30-caliber Model 1906 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 97 

cartridge. These are all cartridges of very high intensity, and of 
extremely high velocity. The magazine will hold but three of the 
.30 and .35 Newton cartridges, and five of the others. 

The rifling is what is known as segmental, a modification of the 
English Metford rifling, the corners of the lands and grooves being 
rounded instead of square. The rifling cutter is made with its edge 
ground on an arc of a circle having a shorter radius than that of 
the bore. The advantages that the manufacturers claim for this 
system of rifling are far greater ease of cleaning, greater durability, 
increased accuracy, and less strain on the bullet jackets in firing. I 
will acknowledge the first and last advantages, but I am not so sure 
of the durability. There would seem to be more liability of the bullet 
to ride up on the inclined surface of the rounded lands, and thus 
to increase the friction. 

The stock is of very good shape and design, and has a well-shaped 
pistol grip. The butt plate is of steel, not checked to prevent slip- 
ping and is not placed on the stock at the right angle, the measure- 
ment from trigger to toe being greater than the distance from trigger 
to heel, and in consequence there is a tendency for the butt to slip 
down on the shoulder during rapid fire. 

It takes considerable time to perfect a new arm so that it is as 
satisfactory as can be made, considering the design. It is a very 
rare thing to find that a new arm, assembled entirely from the 
inventor's design, will work satisfactorily at the start. A long time, 
sometimes as much as a year, must be devoted to smoothing down, 
finding the weak parts and rectifying them, and making the arm 
thoroughly reliable in every respect. Thus the large arms com- 
panies usually keep a new arm in their shops for a number of months 
to thoroughly standardize it before they put it out to the trade. All 
this takes capital and experienced workmen, which a concern just 
starting seldom has. The new concern must start to realize on their 
capital as soon as possible. Thus the Newton Arms Company seems 
to have been obliged to place some of their product on the market 
before it was thoroughly standardized. As a consequence we find 
that many of their earlier rifles may require considerable smooth- 
ing off and adjustment before they will operate satisfactorily. It is 
of course to be expected that as the firm and its workmen gain more 
experience these faults in standardization will be corrected. In fact 
I have before me now (March, 1918) a rifle which has just come 



98 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



through the factory in which this seems to have been done, as it 
works smoothly and easily, handles its cartridges correctly, and the 
parts seem to be in proper adjustment. 

In regard to accuracy of the various cartridges, the reader should 
refer to these particular cartridges in Chapter XL Up to the time 
of going to press the Newton Arms Company have not completely 
developed their .22 Newton, and .35 Newton cartridges. 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING NEWTON HIGH POWER RIFLES 

These rifles are of the bolt action magazine type and may be used 
either as a single loader or a magazine rifle. 




Bolt Forward 
Position 



Withdrawing 
Bolt 



The new Newton bolt stop mechanism 
Patents pending 

To use as a single loader raise the bolt handle, which cocks the 
arm; draw the bolt handle to the rear until checked by the bolt stop; 
place a cartridge on the magazine follower in front of the bolt or 
slide it forward into the chamber; push the bolt forward and turn 
it down into place. The gun is then loaded and cocked ready for 
firing. 

To use as a magazine rifle withdraw the bolt its full length until 
checked by the bolt stop ; fill the magazine with cartridges by placing 
them in the magazine throat in front of the bolt and pressing them 
down until caught by the magazine throat. Continue this until the 
magazine is filled. Clips, the same as used in the United States Spring- 
field army rifle, may be used with the .22-caliber, .256 Newton and 
.30 U. S. G. cartridges, and in such case place the clip in the clip- 
way, press down with the thumb on the upper cartridge and the entire 
clip full of cartridges strips down into the magazine. Pushing the 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 99 

bolt forward into position and turning down the bolt handle will then 
remove the upper cartridge from the magazine into the chamber and 
the rifle is ready for firing. If desired to carry a full magazine as 
well as the rifle loaded, after the magazine is filled press another 
cartridge upon the upper cartridge in the magazine, pressing the fifth 
cartridge down sufficiently far that it clears the bolt, and the bolt will 
then shove the extra cartridge into the chamber. This leaves the 
magazine completely filled and a loaded cartridge in the barrel. 

In firing if it is desired to use a set trigger first draw the rear trigger 
backward until it catches. A very light touch on the front trigger will 
then serve to discharge the weapon. If the rear trigger be not drawn 
back pressing the front trigger fires the weapon the same as with a 
single trigger rifle. 

The use of the safety. The safety is located on a shaft at the 
upper rear right hand corner of the sleeve, the shaft going transversely 
through the sleeve. When in firing position the safety is to the 
rear and pointing 45 degrees below the horizontal. When carrying 
the rifle at safe turn the safety leaf into a vertical position. The 
proper position can be felt as there is a spot on the shaft which is 
engaged by a poppet. In this position the firing pin is locked back 
and the bolt is locked against rotation. To permit the bolt to rotate 
while the firing pin is locked move the safety forward until it is 45 
degrees above the horizontal where another stop can be felt as en- 
gaged by the poppet. This permits free rotation of the bolt yet the 
firing pin is locked. 

For carrying in a scabbard or where the safety is exposed to un- 
due -danger of being accidentally moved, push the safety leaf for- 
ward until it points directly ahead. In this position the bolt handle 
is locked against rotation and the firing pin locked. The safety can 
be brought from this position back to the firing position either by com- 
pleting the rotation past the lower side of the bolt or by reversing the 
movement by which it was put on. 

To remove the bolt from the arm turn up the bolt handle and draw 
backward on the bolt, at the same time pressing backward on the front 
trigger. The backward pressure on the front trigger causes the for- 
ward portion of the sear to rise up and engage a detent finger on the 
lower side of the bolt stop, which is located under the rear receiver 
bridge. This prevents the bolt stop from rising and permits with- 
drawing the bolt completely from the rifle. This pressure on the 
trigger and consequent action of the sear must be applied before the 



ioo THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

bolt stop has entered into the notch of the lower side of the bolt, as 
the trigger has no power to draw the bolt stop down, once it has 
risen, but merely holds it down if caught before it has risen at all. 

To take down the arm for carrying press in the magazine floor 
plate catch immediately in front of the trigger guard until it re- 
leases the rear end of the magazine floor plate, which is thrown down 
by the pressure of the magazine spring; swing the floor plate, which 
is pivoted in the front receiver screw nut, down to its lower position, 
and, using it as a lever, unscrew the nut off the front receiver screw 
and the barrel will unhook and barrel and receiver together tip up- 
ward and off the stock, leaving the guard with trigger mechanism, 
magazine, etc., with the stock. Press the forearm screw nut up into 
the guard forging at its front end until it is flush, then press the maga- 
zine floor plate up close against the magazine until it is caught by the 
magazine floor plate catch. The rifle is then ready for the case. 

To dismount the bolt cock the rifle by raising the bolt handle and 
turning it down again into place. Turn the safety up and forward 
until at an angle of 45 degrees in front of the perpendicular. This 
will permit the bolt handle to rotate while the firing pin is locked. 
Raise the bolt handle and withdraw the bolt completely from the 
rifle. The sleeve may then be unscrewed from the bolt by rotating 
it from left to right, as it is a left hand screw. 

To dismount the sleeve: Remove the bolt and remove the sleeve 
from the bolt as above stated. Throw the safety back to the firing 
position, which is to the rear and 45 degrees below the horizontal, 
which relieves the strain on the main spring. Rest the point of the 
firing pin upon some hard substance and press the sleeve forward, 
thus compressing the main spring until the V-shaped projections on 
the sides of the firing pin nut are clear of their seats in the cock- 
ing head. Unscrew the firing pin nut from the rear end of the firing 
pin. This separates the firing pin, main spring, cocking head and 
firing pin nut from the sleeve proper. 

To dismount the safety mechanism: Having dismounted the sleeve 
as last above described, turn the leaf of the safety until it projects 
directly to the rear and pull it out to the right. The sleeve locking 
bolt with its spring and the poppets bearing against the safety and 
rear end of the bolt, with their springs, may then be pushed out with 
a match or other small drift. 

To remove the guard forging: Unscrew the rear receiver screw 
immediately to the rear of the trigger guard and the front guard 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 101 

screw and this forging may then be either drawn out from the bottom 
or pushed down from the top. 

To remove the rear tang from the stock: First remove the rear 
receiver screw, then unscrew the rear tang screw running from the 
center of the pistol grip cap into the rear end of the rear tang until 
it is free of the tang, then press upward on the end of this screw and 
it will force the rear tang upward and out of its seat in the stock. 

To remove the extractor from the bolt remove the bolt from the 
rifle. Turn the extractor around to that side of the bolt which is 
to be left when the bolt is in position and to the bottom when it is 
being withdrawn. This will free the jaw of the extractor from the 
groove next the bolthead. Push the extractor forward and it will 
slide off the bolt. 

To assemble the rifle reverse the operations of dismounting. 



UNITED STATES MAGAZINE RIFLE, MODEL I* 

This rifle is popularly known as the Krag-Jorgensen. It was the 
service arm of the United States Army prior to the adoption of the 
Model 1903 rifle. The Krag-Jorgensen rifle Was adopted by the 
United States Army in 1892. Three models of it have been issued, 
the 1892, 1896, and 1898, the latter embodying certain small improve- 
ments over the former models. The Model 1899 carbine has exactly 
the same action as the Model 1898 rifle. All of the Krag-Jorgensen 
rifles use the .30-caliber, Model 1898 cartridge, known as the .30-40. 

This is a bolt action magazine rifle, having a box magazine of quite 
different construction from other magazines seen on American rifles. 
The magazine lies horizontally under the receiver. Cartridges are 
inserted in it, one at a time, through a gate on the right side of the rifle, 
and pass to the left and up in front of the bolt to be fed into the 
chamber. The Model 1898 rifle has a 30-inch barrel, and the Model 
1899 carbine a 22-inch barrel. The muzzle velocity of the bullet fired 
from the rifle is 2000 feet per second, and from the carbine 1920 feet 
per second. The magazine holds 5 cartridges. A magazine cut-off 
is provided so that the cartridges in the magazine can be held in re- 
serve, and the rifle used as a. single loader. The magazine may be 
filled while the bolt is closed. 

The Model 1898 rifle has been furnished with three different models 
of rear sights. The Model 1898 rear sight has a leaf hinged at the 
front and lying horizontally. Elevation is obtained by running the 
slide forward over the curved elevation ramp of the base, and secur- 



102 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

ing it with a thumb screw. The eye-piece is adjustable for windage, 
and has three open sight, U-shaped notches, two on either side of the 
center notch, by means of which ten points of windage can be instantly 
obtained without adjustment. The Model 1901 rear sight, which, is 
the one most commonly seen, is somewhat similar to the Model 1905 




Fig. 14 

The United States magazine rifle, Model 1898 

( Krag- Jorgensen) 

rear sight which is the regular sight for the Model 1903 rifle. The 
fixed base is pivoted at the front and has a lateral movement for 
windage adjustment, being pushed by hand to the right and left, and 
secured by a cam lever at the forward end of the fixed base. The 
slide contains a battle sight, and an open and peep sight for use with 
the leaf elevated. The battle sight, which is used with the leaf laid 
flat, adjusts from 100 to 400 yards. When the leaf is raised the open 
sight permits of elevation from about 525 yards to 1900 yards and 
the peep sight from 100 to 1750 yards. The Model 1902 rear sight is 
similar to the Model 1898, but the eye-piece has but one open sight 
notch, and also has a peep plate which may be snapped into aiming 
position in front of the open sight. It is adjustable from 100 to 2000 
yards. On all three sights a movement of one point on the wind-gauge 
will move the point of impact one inch per every hundred yards of 
range. 

The magazine of the rifle is filled by opening the magazine gate 
and inserting cartridges, one at a time, into the magazine, bullet to 
the front, and taking care that the rim of one cartridge lies behind the 
rim of the preceding cartridge. Closing the gate operates to press the 
follower against the last cartridge, and the spring behind the follower 
presses the cartridges to the left and up into position to be engaged, 
one at a time, by the face of the bolt as the latter is operated. The 
bolt is operated in the usual manner by turning it up and pulling it 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



103 



to the rear, which extracts and ejects the empty shell and compresses 
the mainspring. Moving the bolt forward and turning the bolt handle 
down forces a cartridge from the magazine into the chamber, turns 
the one locking lug at the head of the bolt down into its recess in the 
receiver, and locks the rifle ready for firing. When the cut-off is 
turned down the top cartridge in the magazine is slightly depressed 
so that the bolt does not engage it as it moves forward, and thus the 
cartridges in the magazine are held in reserve and the rifle can be used 
as a single loader without reference to the cartridges in the magazine. 
The rifle may be locked against discharge by means of a safety lock 
on the sleeve in a similar manner to the safeties on the Mauser and 
Model 1903 rifles. 



Safety Lock. 
Cocking Piece. ^^ 



Firing PinR 



BoS. 



Main Spring. 




Locking Jjug. 



~~~Guari. 



Action of the Model 1898 rifle, showing the names of the various parts 

To dismount the bolt mechanism. Draw the bolt fully to the rear, 
then place the piece across the hollow of the left arm. Lift the front 
end of hook of the extractor off the bolt with the left thumb, and at 
the same time turn the bolt handle to the left with the right hand. 
The bolt can then be withdrawn from the receiver. Take the bolt 
in the left hand, back of the hand down, bolt upside down. Grasp 
the cocking piece with the right hand. Slightly draw back the cock- 
ing piece and turn it towards the operator until the firing pin can be 
removed from the bolt. Take the firing pin in the left hand and bear 
down on the point of the striker until it leaves the firing pin ; remove 
mainspring from the firing pin, and the latter from the sleeve. 

To dismount the magazine mechanism. The gate being closed, en- 



104 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



gage the flanged head of a cartridge case under the lug on the front 
end of the hinge bar head and turn the latter towards the gate, out 
of its seat; then bear heavily on the gate with the palm of the right 
hand, to overcome the pressure of the magazine spring, and, with the 
left, press forward against the lug, drawing the hinge bar from the 
receiver. Remove the gate, magazine spring, carrier, and follower. 

Extractor. &**» S P ri7t #- 

/ Fvrvng PinRod. 

/ / yB0ll. 

'','' Guide rib. 

Gale. 



I -Follower., 



'Carrier. 




Hinge Bar Pin. 



Magazine Spring- 



Sectional cut showing how the cartridges lie in the magazine. Model 1898 rifle 

To assemble the bolt mechanism. Observe that the safety lock is 
turned to the left. Place the firing pin in the sleeve, and the main- 
spring on the firing pin. Hold the cocking piece against the chest, 
and with the right hand compress the mainspring, pulling it up 
towards the sleeve on the firing pin. Replace the striker, and release 
tension on mainspring. Grasp the bolt handle in the left hand as in 
dismounting, and the firing pin in the right hand, extractor uppermost. 
Insert firing pin in the bolt. Grasp the handle of the bolt with the 
fingers of both hands, bolt directed downward and away from body, 
and with both thumbs in rear of the safety lock push strongly for- 
ward and turn to the right with thumbs until the arm of the sleeve 
engages the collar of the bolt. Grasp the bolt and cocking piece and 
draw back and turn the cocking piece from the operator until its nose 
enters the notch on the rear end of the bolt. Take the bolt in the 
right hand and introduce it into the receiver, keeping the extractor 
lifted. Turn the bolt to the right, and at the same time press strongly 
with the first finger against the right side of the extractor. The bolt 
will slip into its place in the receiver. 

To assemble the magazine mechanism. Hold the rifle with the right 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



105 



side uppermost. Insert arbor of carrier into its hole in receiver, and 
place the end of the left thumb across the magazine to prevent the 
carrier from swinging into the latter. Place the magazine spring 
in its channel, convex side up, rounded end to the rear, particularly 
observing that the lip at its front end rests in the notch on heel of 
carrier. Place gate in its seat, lug entering between carrier and 
magazine spring. Remove left thumb and at the same time press the 
gate against the magazine spring with right hand. Insert hinge bar 
in front hinge hole in the receiver with the left hand, and press 
the gate down strongly until the pin can be pushed through the gate 
into the rear hinge hole. After the hinge bar is fully home, turn the 
head into its seat by opening the gate. 

The following table gives the principal dimensions and weights of 
the rifle and carbine : 



Dimensions 



Rifle 


Carbine 


Inches 


Inches 


•30 


•30 


4 


4 


10. 


10. 


.166 


.166 


.0589 


.0589 


.004 


.004 


30. 


22. 


24-65S 


16.655 


1.85 


1.85 


13-37 


13-37 


48.9 


40.9 


Pounds 


Pounds 


9.187 


8.075 


3.H7 


2.528 


16 to 18 


16 to 18 


6.327 


6.327 



Diameter of bore 

Number of grooves 

Twist, uniform, one turn in 

Width of grooves 

Width of lands 

Depth of grooves 

Length of barrel 

Distance from top of front sight to sighting notch, leaf 

vertical 

Crook of stock from axis of bore to heel of butt 

Stock distance from trigger to butt-plate 

Length of rifle complete without bayonet 

Weights 

Total weight of arm without bayonet 

Weight of barrel 

Weight to compress mainspring 

Weight of 100 cartridges 



For ballistics and data concerning the cartridge see under .30- 
caliber Model 1898 cartridge in Chapter XI. 

The Model 1898 rifle is a most excellent arm. It was used in the 
United States Army from 1892 to 1905 with excellent results. It has 
the reputation throughout the service of standing more abuse and still 
keeping in serviceable condition than any weapon ever used by our 
army. That it was superseded by the 1903 rifle was not due to 
any fault of the arm but to the fact that its mechanism was such that 
the cartridges had to be loaded one at a time into the magazine, and 
it could not be altered for clip loading which modern battle field con- 
ditions require. Also, with the smokeless powders in use at the time 
that it was discarded, the cartridge could not be given sufficient velocity 



io6 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



to keep pace with other nations and still keep within the safety limit 
as regards breech pressure. The bolt has but one locking lug at its 
head as compared with two lugs on the Mauser and Model 1903 
rifles. This fact made it unwise to use ammunition giving pressures 
in excess of about 43,000 pounds per square inch. 

This rifle is at present much used by the various civilian rifle clubs 
throughout the country. It is fully as accurate as any rifle manu- 
factured in the United States, and as accurate as the Model 1903 rifle, 
although of course it does not have the extremely high velocity of 
that rifle, and as a consequence its bullet is more effected by wind, 
and at long ranges as good scores in windy weather cannot be made 
on this account. As explained in the chapter on cartridges, this 
cartridge can now be reloaded with the new powder and the sharp- 
pointed bullets to give ballistics almost equal to the Model 1906 
cartridge. 

The Model 1898 rifle was used by all the expert military rifle 
shots in this country from 1901 to 1906, and excellent results obtained 
with it. At that time the favorite charge consisted of the 220-grain 
jacketed bullet and 36.2-grains of Laflin and Rand (Hercules) W. A. 
.30-caliber powder. This load gave better results, particularly at 
1000 yards, than the regular service load which contained only about 
34.5 grains of the same powder. For the best work at long range 
the sights were always adjusted by means of a micrometer or vernier 
sight adjuster, reading to minutes of angle, the elevations required at 
the various ranges on these instruments being as follows for the 
Government cartridge : 



Ranges 



Rifle 



Carbine 



From 
From 
From 
From 
From 
From 
From 
From 



200 to 
300 to 
350 to 
400 to 
500 to 
600 to 
800 to 
900 to 



300 yards, 
350 yards, 
400 yards, 
500 yards, 
600 yards, 
800 yards, 
goo yards, 
1,000 yards, 



raise 
raise 
raise 
raise 
raise 
raise 
raise 
raise 



elevation, 
elevation, 
elevation, 
elevation, 
elevation, 
elevation, 
elevation, 
elevation. 



6 
3 
4 

fh 

9 
14 

IS 
16 



4.9 
2.7 
2.9 
6.6 

77 



With the carbine the micrometer adjuster does not give the true 
minute as the sights are closer together than with the rifle, and the 
adjuster is made only for the rifle's sight radius. Today the best 
ammunition for target shooting at short or long ranges is that loaded 
with a pointed bullet of about 172 or 180 grains as explained in Chap- 
ter XL 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 107 

These rifles, and the carbine especially, are frequently remodelled 
into sporting arms. The carbine, just as it is, makes a very good 
sporting rifle, but if sights better adapted to hunting than the military 
sights are desired, the front sight can be removed and replaced with 
an ivory bead sight, the rear sight removed entirely, and a Lyman No. 







Fig. is 
Remodelled Krag rifle with Winchester Model 1895 barrel 

48 rear sight, with eyepiece reversed, fitted to the left side of the 
receiver. If the owner considers that the removal of the rear military 
sight makes the rifle unsightly at that part, then a new hand-guard 
without recess for the rear sight can be made and fitted. I used 
a rifle converted in this way for two years in the Phillipine Islands 
with excellent results. The military stock is capable of being shaped 
up into a very fine, straight, grip shotgun stock, and is best when 
fitted with a Silver soft rubber recoil pad, as this gives the stock the 
required length and finish. I do not know of a better arm than this 
to stand the hard work and abuse of real wilderness exploration. 

If one gets a hold of a Krag rifle having a worn-out barrel, the 
.30-40 barrel exactly as made for the Winchester Model 1895 rifle, 
but of course fitted for the thread and extractor of the Krag, can 
be fitted to the action, and this gives a splendidly appearing and 
balancing arm. I have such a rifle with a special hand-made pistol 
grip stock which I value very highly. 

THE UNITED STATES MAGAZINE RIFLE, MODEL I903 

This rifle, popularly known as the New Springfield, was developed 
and manufactured at the Springfield Armory in 1902 with a view to 
its adoption by the United States Army to replace the Model 1898 
(Krag Jorgensen) rifle with which the Army was at that time armed. 
The Spanish-American War had shown the desirability from a military 



io8 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



standpoint of a rifle with which five cartridges could be loaded at once 
into the magazine by means of a clip. The Spanish Mauser could 
be so loaded, but owing to its construction it was only possible to load 
single cartridges into the magazine of the Model 1898 rifle. Also 
it was desired to increase the velocity from 2000 feet per second 
(Krag) to about 2300 feet per second in order to keep pace with other 
nations. 

The action of this rifle is a very close copy of the German Mauser 
rifle, with the exception of the two-piece firing pin, and the combined 
bolt release and magazine cut-off. The latter is designed to permit 
of cutting off the magazine, and permitting the rifle to be used as a 
single loader while the magazine is held in reserve. 




Fig. 16 
The United States rifles, view of right side 
Upper — Model 1903 
Lower — Model 191 7 

The rifle was first issued to the service in the winter of 1904-05, and 
was at that time chambered for the Model 1903 cartridge. This 
cartridge was very similar to the present 1906 cartridge except that the 
neck of the shell was slightly longer, and it used a 220-grain, blunt- 
point bullet, practically the same bullet as was used in the Model 1898 
(Krag) cartridge. The shell was loaded with sufficient Laflin and 
Rand W. A. (nitroglycerine) powder to give a muzzle velocity of 
2350 feet per second. It was soon found that with this powder charge 
the erosion was so excessive that the barrels became w r orn out in about 
800 rounds. The powder charge was therefore reduced to give a 
muzzle velocity of 2200 feet per second. The breech pressure was 
about 44,000 pounds per square inch, and the maximum range 4247 
yards. All the troops in the Regular Army were armed with this 
rifle. 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



109 



In the year 1905 the German Army adapted a light, very sharp 
pointed bullet for their 8 mm. cartridge, giving to it the extremely high 
velocity of 2880 feet per second. The lessened air resistance of this 
sharp point was such that the remaining velocity of the bullet at all 
ranges was greatly increased, and as a consequence the trajectory was 
flattened, thus greatly increasing the danger space, a very great improve- 
ment from a military standpoint. Our own ordnance officers were not 
slow to recognize the improvement, and the Model 1903 rifle proved cap- 

TAR&ET "C". 

800,900 iiOOO YARDS. 

ctrr-errsmoLe. cur-orr. cjcctorpm slide capscpew.^ 

stars -lock spring i sleeveilock. /ejector, extractor collar slide and slide cap./ wi/sagc screw. 

■ ' ■' M. i L_Z / 




/ WINDAGE SCREW KNOB. 
WI&OAGC SCREW COLLAR. 
S4rtrYL0C*7WU8/*C£.SAr7r7KXSP/m£.f^PMSU&t.AOLT. BARREL. M0VABISJA5C. LEAK HAND GUARD. 
).\ SlEEVEy/ MAINSPRING. \fOLLOWER., STRIKER. RESEIHER>^ 




STOCK. 



CUtAO SCPEtt BUSRUia. 



Fig. 17 
Breech mechanism and nomenclature' of the United States rifle. Model of 1903 

able of certain small alterations to enable it to use the new ammunition. 
Experimental bullets were made and tried in the 1903 shell, and it was 
found that by slightly shortening the neck of the shell a 150-grain 
bullet with a 6 diameter sharp point could be used. It was decided to 
adapt this cartridge to the new rifle. The new cartridge is called the 
.30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge, so we have a Model 1903 rifle using 
Model 1906 ammunition. To adapt the rifle to the new ammunition it- 
was necessary to rechamber all the rifles already manufactured, cutting 
the barrel off at the breech and shortening it slightly. The barrel of 
the original rifle was 24 inches long, and this shortening for the 
1906 ammunition accounts for the present standard length of barrel 
being 23.79 inches long. At the beginning we had to use the old W. A. 



no THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

nitroglycerine powder, and the erosion was very serious. The Du Pont 
Company, however, quickly developed a pyro-cellulose powder for the 
rifle. Pyro-cellulose powders burn with a much cooler gas than nitro- 
glycerine powders, and give very much less erosion. The powder 
has been steadily improved until today the present powder, Du Pont 
Military Rifle Powder No. 20, is a most stable, cool-burning powder 
that gives an accuracy life for the barrel of from 8000 to 11,000 
rounds, over ten times the life of the bore with the old nitroglycerine 
powder. So much for the history of our present government rifle. 
We now come to a consideration of its construction and ballistics. 

The rifle is a bolt action, military arm, copied, as has been said, from 
the German Mauser rifle. The box magazine holds five cartridges in 
two rows. The raising of the bolt handle cocks the rifle, compressing 
the mainspring by means of a cam. This cam also acts to start the 
withdrawal or extraction of the cartridge from the chamber, and the 
turning down of the bolt handle also causes the cam movement to 
insert the fresh cartridge in the chamber and seat it to the proper 
depth. This cam movement is extremely powerful, and is the feature 
that gives such excellence and efficiency to the Mauser type of action. 
A pressure of only 25 pounds on the bolt handle causes, by means of 
this cam, a force of 186.4 pounds being applied to the extraction or 
insertion of a cartridge. Thus there is a surety of loading cartridges 
and ejecting fired shells that few other rifles have. After the bolt 
handle has been turned up, the withdrawal to the rear of the bolt 
continues the extraction of the fired cartridge, and as the bolt reaches 
the end of its rearward travel the ejector passes through a slot in one 
of the locking lugs on the bolt, and projecting itself out in front of 
the bolt face, ejects the fired shell clear of the rifle and to the right. 
As the bolt is shoved forward its face engages with the head of the top 
cartridge in the magazine, forcing it out of the magazine and into the 
chamber. The turning down of the bolt handle completes the seating 
of the cartridge in the chamber, and also turns the bolt so that the 
two locking lugs at its head engage in recesses in the well of the re- 
ceiver, locking the bolt against the explosion of the cartridge. When 
the cut-off is turned down, or " off," it limits the backward travel of 
the bolt, so that the bolt head does not go far enough to the rear to 
engage the head of the top cartridge in the magazine. As a conse- 
quence the cartridges in the magazine are held in reserve, and the rifle 
works as a single loader. When using the rifle as a magazine arm, 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES in 

when the last cartridge has been fired the follower in the magazine 
comes up and engages the face of the bolt and prevents the bolt being 
closed. Thus the soldier is notified that his magazine is empty. 

The barrel is 23.79 inches long, measuring from the rear of the cham- 
ber to the muzzle. It is covered with wood almost its entire length to 
protect it and also to facilitate handling by the soldier when the barrel 
becomes hot from repeating firing. The wood covering above the 
barrel is called the hand-guard. The following are the principal dimen- 
sions and weights of the rifle. 

Dimensions 
Barrel : Inches 

Diameter of bore 0.30 

Exterior diameter at muzzle 619 

Exterior diameter at breech 1.14 

Length of chamber and bore 23.79 

Length of travel of bullet in bore 21.697 

Diameter of chamber, rear end 4716 

Diameter of chamber, front end 442 

Diameter of neck of chamber, rear end 3425 

Diameter of neck of chamber, front end 3405 

Length of body of chamber 1-793 

Length of shoulder of chamber 16 

Length of neck of chamber 396 

Length of chamber, total 2.3716 

Rifling: 

Number of grooves, 4. 

Twist, uniform, one turn in 10.00 

Width of grooves 1767 

Width of lands 0589 

Depth of grooves 004 

Height of front sight above axis of bore 1.05 

Distance from top of front sight to rear side of leaf, leaf raised... 22.1254 
Stock : 

Length, with butt plate 40.166 

Crook, i. e., distance from axis of bore to heel of butt 2.089 

Distance from trigger to butt plate 12.74 

Length of gun complete 43-212 

Sight radius 22.1254 

Sight radius (battle sight) 21.5404 

Width of single division on windage scale 0267 

Weights Pounds 

Barrel 2.79 

Barrel, with rear-sight base and front-sight stud '. 3.00 

Butt plate 26 

Receiver 98 

Bolt mechanism 1.00 

Magazine and trigger guard 44 

Magazine mechanism, including floor plate 17 

Bayonet 1.00 

Stock 1.58 

Hand guard 13 

Front and rear bands, including swivels 25 

Rear sight, not including base 20 



ii2 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Pounds 

Total weight of metal parts 7.30 

Oiler and thong case 19 

Total weight of arm, including oiler and thong case, with bayonet 9.69 

Total weight of arm, including oiler and thong case, without bayonet. . 8.69 

Weight to compress mainspring 16 to 18 

Trigger pull (measured at middle point of bow of trigger) 3 to 4% 

Miscellaneous Data 

Initial velocity 2,700 feet per second 

Powder pressure in chamber about 51,000 pounds per square inch 

Weight of ball cartridge about 395.5 grains 

Weight of bullet 150 grains 

Weight of powder charge about 50 grains 

One of the greatest advantages that this rifle, and in fact almost all 
military arms, has over the ordinary sporting rifle, is that practically 
every part of the mechanism can be dismounted readily without any 
tools whatever. It is easily possible for one accustomed to the opera- 
tion completely to dismount the breech mechanism of the Model 1903 
rifle in fifteen seconds, and to assemble it in thirty seconds. This is 
of importance, not only to the soldier but to the sportsman as well, and 
particularly when the sportsman assays to explore unknown countries 
where he is out not for a couple of weeks but for months at a time, 
and thousands of miles from gunsmiths and even from screw-drivers 
and drifts. A rifle brought into a warm room or cabin during cold 
weather will sweat on every steel surface, and if it cannot be cleaned 
and wiped off at once inside it is going to rust there. Likewise, a 
canoe upset is liable at any time to make it necessary to clean the action 
of the rifle thoroughly, or desert dust will also make it necessary. 
In the tropics one perspires freely, and I have never been out for a 
day's hunt in the jungle that my rifle was not thoroughly wet inside, 
either from sweat or water. Once while travelling along the Caribbean 
coast in a dug-out canoe with some natives I had the misfortune to get 
swamped by a large wave a long distance from shore, and the canoe 
turned bottom up. Fortunately I kept a hold of my rifle and ruck- 
sack. We were over an hour getting ashore, and it was several days 
before I got to a place where it would have been possible to get either 
a screw-driver or oil. Fortunately my rifle was a Model 1903 re- 
modelled into a sporting arm, and I had a field cleaner and oil bottle 
in the recess under the butt-plate. It was but the matter of a few 
moments when I got ashore to take the rifle all apart, dry and clean it 
thoroughly, and oil it. 

To dismount the Model 190? rifle proceed as follozvs. Place the 
cut-off at the center notch ; cock the arm and turn the safety lock to a 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 113 

vertical position, raise the bolt handle and draw the bolt completely 
out of the receiver. Hold the bolt in the left hand, press the sleeve 
lock with the thumb of the right hand to unlock sleeve from bolt, 
and unscrew sleeve by turning to the left. Hold sleeve between fore- 
finger and thumb of the left hand, draw the cocking piece back with 
middle finger and thumb of right hand, turn safety lock down to the 
left with forefinger of right hand, in order to allow the cocking piece 
to move forward in the sleeve, thus partially relieving the tension of 
mainspring; with the cocking piece against the breast, draw back the 
firing pin sleeve with the forefinger and thumb of right hand, and 
hold it in this position while removing the striker with the left hand; 
remove firing pin sleeve and mainspring ; pull firing pin out of sleeve ; 
turn the extractor to the right, forcing its tongue out of its groove 
in the front of the bolt, and force the extractor forward and off the 
bolt. 

To assemble bolt mechanism. Grasp with the left hand the rear 
of the bolt, handle up, and turn the extractor collar with the thumb and 
forefinger of the right hand until its lug is on a line with the safety lug 
on the bolt ; take the extractor in the right hand and insert the lug on 
the collar in the undercuts in the extractor by pushing the extractor 
to the rear until its tongue comes in contact with the rim on the face 
of the bolt (a slight pressure with the thumb on the top of the rear part 
of the extractor assists in this operation) ; turn the extractor to the 
right until it is over the right lug; take the bolt in the right hand and 
press the hook of the extractor against the butt plate or some rigid 
object, until the tongue on the extractor enters its groove in the bolt. 
With the safety lock turned down to the left to permit the firing pin 
to enter the sleeve as far as possible, assemble the sleeve and firing 
pin; place the cocking piece against the breast and put on mainspring, 
firing pin sleeve, and striker. Hold the cocking piece between the 
thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and by pressing the striker point 
against some substance, not hard enough to injure it, force the cocking 
piece back until the safety lock can be turned to the vertical position 
with the right hand; insert the firing pin in the bolt and screw up the 
sleeve (by turning it to the right) until the sleeve lock enters its 
notch on the bolt. See that the cut-off is at the center notch; hold 
the piece under the floor-plate in the fingers of the left hand, the thumb 
extending over the left side of the receiver; take bolt in right hand 
with safety lock in a vertical position and safety lug up ; press the 
rear end of the follower down with left thumb and push bolt into the 



ii 4 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

receiver ; turn bolt handle down ; turn safety lock and cut-off down to 
the left with right hand. 

To dismount magazine mechanism. With the bullet end of a cart- 
ridge press on the floor plate catch (through the hole in the floor 
plate) at the same time drawing the bullet to the rear; this releases the 
floor plate. Raise the rear end of the first limb of the. magazine spring 
high enough to clear the lug on the floor plate and draw it out of its 
mortise; proceed in the same manner to remove the follower. To as- 
semble the magazine spring and follower to floor plate, reverse the 
operation of dismounting. Insert the follower and magazine spring in 
the magazine, place the tenon on the front end of the floor plate in its 
recess in the magazine, then place the lug on the rear end of the floor 
plate in its slot in the guard, and press the rear end of the floor plate 
forward and inward at the same time, forcing the floor plate into its 
seat in the guard. 

This dismounting is all that is necessary thoroughly to clean the 
entire breech mechanism. Should any of the smaller parts require dis- 
mounting, or should it be necessary to remove the stock from the rifle, 
proceed as follows : 

To dismount the safety lock turn it to the dismounting bevel on the 
sJeeve and remove it by striking the thumb piece a light blow. To 
dismount the sleeve lock, drive out the sleeve lock pin from the top and 
remove lock and spring, being careful not to lose the spring. 

To remove the stock. Remove the upper band screw and drive the 
upper band forward and off the wood by a few sharp blows on the rear 
of the bayonet stud with a hardwood block or a brass rod. Press in 
rear end of lower band spring and drive forward the lower band by a 
few sharp blows on the lug and then on the top with the hardwood 
block, and move the lower band forward and off the stock. Draw the 
handguard forward until free from the fixed base of the rear sight, 
and remove it. Remove the guard screws and guard. Remove the 
barrel and receiver from the stock, taking care to lift the receiver out 
of its seat in the stock. To assemble, proceed in reverse order, taking 
care to see that the guard screws are screwed up very tight. 

The front and rear sights are fastened to the barrel by means of 
bands, called the front sight fixed stud, and the rear sight fixed base. 
The front sight movable stud fits into the fixed stud by means of a 
transverse dovetail and the front sight itself, a thin steel blade with 
flat top, fits in a slot in the stud. The movable stud can therefore be 
adjusted in the fixed stud to cause the rifle to shoot at zero; that is, 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



ii5 



to shoot center when the wind gauge is adjusted to center on windless 
days. When the sight is once thus adjusted a hole is drilled through 
both studs, and a screw placed therein, thus firmly binding the two 
together, and preventing the front sight ever being misplaced except by 
destructive force. 




Fig. 18 
United States rifle, Model 1903, remodelled into a sporting rifle, and equipped 
with Lyman No. 48 rear sight. From the author's collection 




Fig. 19 
United States rifle, Model 1903, remodelled into a sporting 

of action 



arm. Top view 




Fig. 20 

United States rifle, Model 1903, remodelled into a sporting arm. View of 
stock, showing Whelen model of cheek piece 




Fig. 21 
Floor plate of United States rifle, Model 1003. for rifle converted into a sport- 
ing arm, showing engraving, and insignia of The Camp Fire Club of America. 
From the author's collection. 



n6 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



The rear sight movable base fits into the rear sight fixed base cuts, be- 
ing screwed into them by the wind gauge screw. It is also pivoted on a 
lug on the fixed base so that when the wind gauge screw is turned the 
movable base works from side to side through the cuts in the fixed base, 
thus giving adjustment for windage. The movable base carries a 
scale called the wind gauge scale which is divided into points. An ad- 
justment of one point causes a lateral change in the point of impact of 
4 inches per every hundred yards, or approximately 4 minutes of angle. 
The fixed base also carries the leaf, and the slide is attached to the 
leaf and slides up and down thereon. The slide carries the rear sights, 
really four in number. There is the battle sight on the top of the 
slide when the leaf is laid flat. This battle sight is adjusted to 547 
yards on the theory that it gives the greatest danger space if aim be 
taken at the belt of an advancing or retreating enemy. At the muzzle 
and at 547 yards the enemy would be hit in the belt, and at mid range 
in the head without any estimation or allowance for range. Under 
the slide is the drift slide, a thin piece of metal which carries an open 
sight in a triangle, with a peep sight below it. Both these sights are 
adjustable from 100 yards up. On the top of the slide when the leaf 
stands vertical is a third open sight which can be adjusted for extreme 
ranges up to 2700 yards. Also on the top of the leaf is another open 
sight notch adjustable for the highest range to which the rifle is sighted 
— 2800 yards. 



Fig. 22 
The United States rifles. Top view 
Left — Model 1903 
Right — Model 1917 

The rifle was first issued with an excellent rear sight similar to that 
illustrated in Fig. 49. This was a purely military rear sight, and did 
not satisfy the military rifle shots, particularly those interested in 
competitions, and pressure was brought to bear on the Ordnance De- 
partment to change it, which resulted on the present compromise sight, 
really not particularly good for either military shooting or target shoot- 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 117 

ing. For target shooting the peep sight is used almost exclusively. 
In fact at the national matches which are held every other year the 
peep sight is used to the absolute exclusion of the open sight for all 
shooting at bull's-eye targets. The riflemen gathered at these com- 
petitions represent the very best shots in the country, and their selection 
of the peep sight for all shooting where the battle sight is not absolutely 
prescribed is an indication of the superiority of peep sights over open 
sights. And yet the peep sight on this rifle is a very poor one, being 
very much too far from the eye, hard to see, and obscuring most of the 
target. 

One who has been shooting a black powder rifle, or even a high power 
rifle having a velocity around 2000 feet per second, finds a decided 
change when he comes to fire the Model 1903 rifle. The extremely high 
velocity makes very much less allowance necessary for distance, and also 
less allowance for moving objects or running game. The report is much 
sharper, although not particularly louder, and one must be careful not 
to get his ear near the muzzle of the rifle when some one else is firing 
it. He will find the accuracy also probably much superior to the 
weapon that he has been using. The short stock will bother him a 
little until he becomes used to it. But probably the greatest difference 
that the rifleman experienced with other arms will notice will be the 
great difficulty in cleaning the rifle after the service cartridges have been 
fired in it. This is due to the fact that at the extremely high velocity 
(2700 feet per second) and very high pressure (50,000 pounds per 
square inch) some of the cupro-nickel jacket of the bullets adheres to 
the bore, or else the bore gets a very thin, invisible plating of cupro- 
nickel. It is impossible to remove this without a very strong ammonia 
solution to dissolve it by chemical action. The primer used with smoke- 
less powders always makes the powder and primer fouling deposited in 
the bore extremely acid in character, and some of this acid fouling prac- 
tically always gets imprisoned under the metal fouling. As a conse- 
quence, unless the metal fouling be removed promptly after firing the 
acid fouling gets in its work and rusts the rifle. If the rifle be cleaned 
in the ordinary manner with alkaline oils or powder solvents the acid 
fouling under the metal fouling will not be touched, and the day after 
the rifle has been fired an examination of the bore will show it to be 
apparently fouled again. Patches passed through the bore will come 
out very black. If the bore be neglected for a couple of days patches 
passed through will come out red with rust. The bore can be kept 
polished by cleaning every day with oils or powder solvents, combined 



n8 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



with a lot of rubbing with the patches, but this kind of cleaning alone, 
without the ammonia solution, really consists simply in polishing off 
the surface rust which appears from day to day, and with the rust 
always goes a little metal. The result of this lack of intelligent care is 
the ultimate ruination of the bore of the rifle through rusting. On the 
other hand, if the rifle have the ammonia solution used in the bore 
not later than the evening of the day on which it was fired the solution 
dissolves all the metal (cupro-nickel) fouling, and being an alkaline 
neutralizes the acidity of the powder and primer fouling. It is only 
necessary then to dry and clean the bore well with patches, and then 
oil it to preserve it in perfect condition. Despite its high velocity and 
extreme pressure, this rifle has a very long accuracy life when it is 




Fig. 23 

Two sighting shots and ten consecutive shots fired at 600 yards by the author 
with U. S. rifle, Model of 1903, in the National Team Match, 1909. U.. S. Cart- 
ridge Co., ammunition. 

properly cleaned in this manner. Practically no loss in accuracy, even 
for long range target shooting, will be noticed up to 5000 rounds, 
provided the rifle be not used for an undue amount of rapid fire, and 
the accuracy for military purposes will last for from 8000 to 15,000 
rounds. This matter has been gone into in detail because satisfactory 
results with this rifle cannot be expected for more than a short time 
unless one has a knowledge of how to care for this particular arm, and 
applies this knowledge. For detailed instructions as to the cleaning of 
these and other rifles see the chapter on The Cleaning and Care of the 
Rifle. 

It has been stated that this rifle is very accurate. In fact it is the 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



119 



most accurate rifle in the world, excepting only specially hand-made 
arms like the Pope and Neidner rifles. From a machine rest with 
accurate ammunition it will group its shots in a four-inch circle at 200 
yards, or a 20-inch circle at 1000 yards, but the rifleman can hardly 
hold and aim this well, and about the human limit in this respect seems 
to be a 5-inch circle at 200 yards, and a 30-inch circle at 1000 yards. 
Possibles of 20 shots, all shots in a 36-inch bull's-eye, have been made 
several times at 1000 yards, and 10 shot possibles at this range are 
very common. This firing was all done in the military prone position, 
using the gun-sling as an aid to steady holding as described in the chap- 
ter on Holding and the Firing- Positions. 





/ / ®© \ \ 
I ©©©© A. ) 

\ \ II 

\ ^^ ® y J 





Fig. 24 
Two sighting shots and ten consecutive shots fired at 800 yards by the author 
with U. S. rifle, Model of 1903, in the National Team Match, 1909. U. S. Cart- 
ridge Co., ammunition. 

The Model 1903 rifle is sometimes remodelled into a sporting arm 
by sportsmen who have acquired a personal title to the rifle through a 
membership in the National Rifle Association or in one of the rifle clubs 
affiliated with the association. The work of remodelling is usually 
done by a skilled gunmake'r. Ludwig Wundhammer of Los Angeles, 
California, and Fred Adolph of Genoa, New York, have remodelled 
many of these rifles in a most satisfactory manner. The military stock, 
rear sight, and rear sight fixed base are removed from the arm and not 
nsed. The entire barrel is polished and reblued, and a Lyman No. 
48 rear sight is attached to the receiver, or a Lyman No. 1 rear sight 
of special pattern is fitted to the rear of the cocking piece (end of the 
bolt). The rifle is then restocked with a sporting stock to fit the 
owner, and a most excellent big game rifle results. In fact it is gen- 
erally acknowledged that a remodelled Springfield rifle makes the very 
best big game rifle for every kind of American shooting that it is 



120 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



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THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



121 



possible to obtain at any price. It is extremely accurate, and very 
powerful, especially when used with the special loads described under 
this cartridge in the chapter on Various Cartridges Discussed. 

Appended to this chapter are tables giving the ballistics of the 
service Model 1906 cartridge adapted to the Model 1903 rifle. For 
sporting and hunting cartridges adapted to this rifle see the chapter 
above quoted. 

PENETRATION 



Material 



White-pine butts made of 1-inch 
boards placed 1 inch apart 

Moist sand 

Dry sand 

Loam practically free from sand. 

Thoroughly seasoned oak across the 
grain 

Brick wall 

Low steel (boiler plate) 



PENETRATION 



50 feet 100 yards I 500 yards j 1. 000 yards 




RAPIDITY OF FIRE 

Twenty-three aimed shots have been fired in one minute with this 
rifle, used as a single loader, and twenty-five shots in the same time, 
using magazine fire. Firing from the hip without aim, 30 shots have 
been fired in one minute, using rifle as a single loader, and 40 shots 
in one minute, using magazine fire. 

MAXIMUM RANGE 
(Computed) 



Maximum range 



Elevation 



Time of flight 



4,891.6 yards 



45 degrees 



38.058 seconds 



ACCURACY 
f As determined by firings to date.l 





Deviation 


Range, yards 


Mean vertical 


Mean horizontal 


Mean radius 


1 (X) 


Inches 
0.6 
I.I 
1-7 
2-3 
3-0 
3-6 

4-3 
5.o 

5-9 
6-5 


Inches 

0.6 
1.1 
1-7 
2.3 
3-o 
3-6 
4-3 
50 
5.8 
6.4 


Inches 
0.8 


■•00 

■300 


1 -5 
. 2 -3 

3-2 

4.1 

5-o 

60 


jOO 


son 

600 


700 


800 

000 

1,000 


7-1 
8-3 
9-6 





122 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



UNITED STATES RIFLE, MODEL I917 

Prior to the outbreak of the Great War, in 19 14, the English Army 
was equipped with the Lee rifle, a bolt-action, magazine rifle which was 
officially known as the Lee-Enfield, due to its being made chiefly 
at the ordnance shops at Enfield. This rifle fired the .303 British car- 
tridge, a cartridge very similar to our .30-40 in shape, size, and ballistics. 
The rifle itself was rather behind the times. The locking lugs on the 
breech bolt, instead of being up at the head of the bolt where they would 
most perfectly withstand the back thrust of discharge, were placed 
towards the rear end of the bolt. The English ordnance office has 
considerably improved the ammunition recently by substituting a 
pointed bullet of 175 grains for the old blunt point bullet of 225 grains, 




Fig. 25 
The United States rifles. View of left side 
Upper — Model 1917 
Lower — Model 1903 

and increasing the velocity from 2000 feet per second, to about 2400 
feet per second. Further than this they were unable to go, as the de- 
sign of the rifle was not such that it would withstand a higher breech 
pressure. . Even with the regular ammunition, the action of the rifle 
caused many variations in flip and point of impact when conditions were 
not just right, and considerable pains had to be taken in manufacture 
to see that each locking lug had exactly the same bearing on the receiver. 
In 19 13 the English government determined to equip their forces 
with a more modern rifle using a cartridge with superior ballistics. 
They selected 28-caliber as being the size with which a bullet of good 
ballistic coefficient could be fired at the maximum velocity, and yet 
not have excessive recoil. The velocity was to approach very nearly 
to 3000 feet per second. A rifle had to be designed to handle this new 
and powerful cartridge as the Lee was not strong enough, nor was the 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



123 



receiver large enough. The rifle selected was practically a Mauser. It 
had the Mauser magazine, bolt, and locking lugs, but the method of 
cocking, and of compressing the mainspring. in the Lee, was retained, as 
well as the Lee safety lock. Several thousand of these rifles were 
manufactured, and a few of them issued for trial at the time that 
the war broke out. England needed at once a large number of rifles ; 
the new rifle w T as capable of being manufactured more easily than the 
old Lee. Therefore it was determined to use the new rifle but modify 
it to use the old ammunition, and accordingly contracts were let in 
Great Britain and in the United States for the manufacture of this rifle 
in large quantities. 

When the United States entered the war in 1917 it found us with 
only two arsenals equipped to manufacture the Model 1903 rifle. 



Fig. 26 
The United States rifles. Bottom view 
Left — Model 1903 
Right — Model 1917 

Congress at several times had been asked to enter into contract with 
a number of private arms companies for the manufacture of our rifles, 
to the end. that we might have a number of factories equipped with 
machinery, gauges, etc., for the manufacture of our 1903 rifles, so that 
we would be prepared for any emergency like the present one, but 
they had not seen fit to make the necessary laws and pass the necessary 
appropriations. Our entry into the war therefore found us with 
only two arsenals (Springfield and Rock Island) equipped to manu- 
facture our own rifle, but with a large number of factories with ma- 
chinery all ready to turn out the new Enfield rifle in large quantities. 
It happened that the Enfield rifle could easily be adapted to our am- 
munition, the receiver being just about the right size, and the locking 
lugs amply secure. We therefore entered into contract with all these 
firms to produce these rifles chambered for our .30-caliber, Model 
1906 ammunition with which to equip the National Army, and the 
result was the United States Rifle, Model 1917. 



124 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

In its essentials this rifle is really not very different from our 1903 
rifle. The bolt and magazine are practically the same. The main- 
spring, instead of being compressed by a cam during the lifting and 
shutting of the bolt handle, is compressed partly by the lifting of the 
bolt handle, but mostly by the last three fourths of an inch of the push- 
ing forward of the bolt, the sear engaging the cocking piece before 
the mainspring is fully compressed, and holding it back. The safety, 
instead of being on top of the sleeve, is on the right side of the receiver, 




Rear view of rear sight of the United States rifle, Model of 1917. Leaf laid 
flat and battle sight in position 

in rear of the bridge, and to the right of the sleeve. Bringing the 
safety lock to the rear to its full extent locks the bolt and trigger by 
engaging a projection on the cocking piece. The barrel is 26 inches 
long instead of 23.79 inches, the length of the 1903 barrel. The hand- 
guard covers the top of the barrel as in the 1903 rifle. The butt-stock 
is quite a little improvement over our 1903 stock. In the first place 
it is a little longer. Our 1903 stock was made quite short in an effort 
to make the whole rifle slightly shorter so that it would suit both in- 
fantry and cavalry, and as a consequence it was quite a little too short 
to fit most men perfectly. The butt-stock on the 1917 rifle also has a 
pistol grip which permits a better grip for the right hand, particularly 
leaving the trigger finger more limber and under better control when 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



125 



the grip is firmly grasped. The 19 17 butt-plate is of a better shape to 
accommodate itself to the shoulder of the rifleman, but it is not roughly 
checked as is the 1903 butt-plate, and is therefore more liable to slip on 
the shoulder, particularly during rapid fire. 

It is in the sights of the two rifles that we see the most important 
difference. In making the 191 7 receiver the bridge over the bolt 
well at the rear was made very long, and the rear sight was mounted 




Fig. 28 
Rear view of rear sight of the United States rifle, Model of 1917. 

raised 



Sight leaf 



on this where it should be to get the utmost efficiency. The rear sight 
is a peep sight, the aperture being on the Lyman principle ; that is, 
a large aperture and a thin rim. The placing of a Lyman sight back 
close to the eye follows the most modern methods with sporting rifles, 
and is a great advance in the sighting of the military rifle. There are 
two rear sights, the standard or battle sight being always in position 



126 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



and adjusted for 400 yards. In front of this is a leaf which can be 
raised for longer ranges, and this leaf carries another aperture, also 
of the Lyman design, which is capable of adjustment from 200 to 
1600 yards, but can be adjusted to hundreds of yards only. A ratchet 
on the leaf slide snaps into serrations on the right side of the leaf, 
securely locking the slide for every 100 yards of elevation. There is 
no windage adjustment for the rear sight. On either side of the 
sight large lugs or projections of heavy metal stand up, fully pro- 
tecting the sight from damage, either by falls or in the cavalry boot. 

The front sight is a straight knife edge, appearing in aiming very 
similar to our 1903 front sight, but quite a little thicker. It is secured 
in a dovetail fixed base in a manner almost exactly the same as the 
front sights on sporting rifles, so that it can be driven from side to 



SAFETY LOCK. 
SLCCVC 
COCHINS piece 



BARREL 
RCAR HAND OUARD 
CARTRIDGE IN CHAMBER 




'STOCK 
RECOIL LUG 
'FRONT GUARD SCREW W5WJS 
TROTT GUARD SMEW 



REAR OUARD SCREW 



IAZINE SPRING 
FLOOR PLATE 



Fig. 29 
Breech mechanism and nomenclature of the United States rifle, Model of 1917 

side to zero the rifle. On either side of the front sight large lugs or 
projections of heavy steel stand up, projecting quite a little beyond 
the top of the front sight, and protect the sight from any damage, or 
from blows which might knock it out of alignment. The rifleman must 
learn not to take one of these lugs for the front sight itself, after 
which he will find no trouble. 

Our military target riflemen will probably not take kindly to the 19 17 
sights as they cannot be adjusted very closely for elevation, and tbey 
have no wind-gauge. But these are undoubtedly the best military 
sights that have ever been placed on a fighting weapon. They permit 
of a very clear sight, of a very quick sight, and of aim being taken in 
poor lights. As they do not cut off the vision of the surrounding 



THE AMERICAN RIFLES 



127 



country in aiming they lend themselves very well to aim at moving 
objects, as the object, and its route of travel can be kept constantly 
in view while aiming. There is also very much less eye strain when 
using them than there was with the old forms of open and peep 
sights. The sighting radius is very much longer which adds to the 
accuracy of aim. 

It seems to the writer that the 191 7 rifle balances better, and that 
the stock and the drop thereof fits better than in the 1903 rifle, and 
if experience proves that the two rifles are made of as good material, 
and that as much pains have been taken with the 191 7 rifle as were 
taken with the 1903 in providing an accurately bored barrel, we will 
profit considerably by the change, due chiefly to the more modern 
sights. 




ig- 30 



DISMOUNTING AND ASSEMBLING THE MODEL I917 RIFLE 

To dismount the bolt. Remove the bolt from the rifle by drawing 

it out to the rear while pulling out the 

thumb piece of the bolt stop. Hook a 

loop of string on the dismounting hook 

on the cocking piece lug, and, holding 

the bolt in the left hand, and the string 

in the right draw the cocking piece out 

until the lug clears the end of the bolt. 

(See Fig. 30.). Then by moving the right 
hand in a circular path counter clockwise, four 
complete revolutions, unscrew the sleeve from 
the bolt and withdraw the sleeve, cocking piece, 
and striker from the bolt. Grasp the sleeve 
with the left hand, and, while holding the point 
of the striker against a wood or similar sur- 
face, force the sleeve towards the point of the 
striker, compressing the mainspring until the 
lug on the cocking piece clears the lug slot in 
the sleeve, as shown in Fig. 31. Then, with 
the right hand, give the cocking piece a quar- 
ter turn, in either direction, to disengage it 
from the striker, and draw it off to the rear. 
Relieve the spring from stress slowly and re- 
move it and the sleeve from the striker, being 




128 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

careful that the parts do not fly from the hand. Turn the extractor so 
that it covers the gas escape holes in the bolt and push it forward with 
the thumb until it is free of the ears on the collar. 

To assemble the bolt. Slide the mainspring over the striker. Hold 
the point of the striker against a wood or similar surface, and, plac- 
ing the sleeve against the end of the spring, with the flats in its bore 
registering with the flats on the striker, compress the spring by forcing 
the sleeve toward the point of the striker. Holding the sleeve with 
the spring fully compressed, replace the cocking piece on the end of the 
striker and lock it by a quarter turn so that its lug aligns with the lug 
slot in the sleeve. Then let the sleeve return to its position slowly 
under the action of the spring. Grasp the bolt in the left hand and 
start the threads on the barrel of the sleeve into the threads in the end 
of the bolt. Holding a loop of string in the right hand as before, hook it 
on the dismounting hook, and draw the cocking piece out. Then by 
moving the right hand in a circular path, clockwise, screw the sleeve 
home in the bolt. Place the lug in the half-cock notch. Slide the 
extractor to place in line with the gas escape holes, engaging the 
undercut lug on the extractor with the ears on the ring, and lifting 
the hook so that the tongue will slide over the end of the bolt. Turn 
the extractor so that it lies over the unslotted or solid lug, and replace 
the bolt in the receiver, pulling out on the bolt stop, and pressing down 
on the follower while so doing. 

To dismount and assemble the magazine mechanism proceed in ex- 
actly the same way as with the United States Rifle, Model of 1903. 



CHAPTER V 

BARRELS 

COME twenty years ago when black powder was universally used 
^ all rifle barrels were made of soft steel or iron. Black powder 
exerted a pressure of less than 30,000 pounds to the square inch, and 
nothing stronger was necessary. The main thing was to get a homo- 
geneous metal, and one that would work easily and smoothly. With 
the advent of smokeless, high-pressure powder and jacketed bullets it 
was found that an improvement in the barrel steel was absolutely neces- 
sary. A higher elastic limit was necessary, greater hardness to resist 
wear, and a higher melting point to resist erosion of the hot powder 
gases. A low carbon, easily machined steel was found which would 
meet these conditions and adopted by the Government for the service 
rifles. There has been a slight improvement in- this steel from year 
to year, until that now in use is ve»ry satisfactory indeed, when erosion, 
corrosion, machining, and elastic limit are concerned. This same steel 
is used by practically all commercial riflemakers for their high-power 
rifles except by the Winchester Company. 

On the advent of high-power, smokeless rifles the Winchester Re- 
peating Arms Company adopted a nickel steel for this type of rifle, 
and have continued to use it to the present day. It has always seemed 
to me to be a most excellent steel. It is claimed that it has a slightly 
lower melting point than the ordnance steel used by the United States 
Government, and that therefore it does not resist erosion as well. My 
own experience with it has been just the opposite. It seems to resist 
erosion much better than the other steel, and it certainly is quite a little 
more resistant to rust. I have one .30-40 barrel of this nickel steel 
made in the spring of 1906 that has been fired many thousands of 
rounds, I would hate to say how many, with every kind of ammuni- 
tion and powder, and as far as I can see the barrel is just as good as 
ever and shows no signs of wear. During the time that I have had 
this rifle I have worn out six barrels of Krag rifles, and this one 
nickel steel barrel has certainly had as many rounds fired through it 
as all six Krag barrels combined. But this is probably an exceptional 

129 



i 3 o THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

case, and an exceptional piece of steel, and too much notice should not 
be paid to this incident. 

Of late years a few riflemen in this country have imported steel 
from abroad and had barrels made of it. The German Krupp hard 
steel makes very good barrels, but I do not believe that it is a bit 
superior to our own steel for rifle barrels. About 191 1 Mr. E. C. 




Fig. 32 
Sporting Springfield rifle used almost exclusively by the author as a hunting 
rifle from 1913 to 1917. This rifle has a Poldi " Anti-corro" steel barrel, and has 
proved a most efficient hunting arm. 

Crossman and the writer both imported from the Poldi Steel Works 
in Vienna, Austria, barrels of what is known as Poldi anti-corro steel, 
which had attracted much attention abroad on account of its resistance 
to rust and erosion. We both had these barrels rifled and cham- 
bered for the .30-caliber, 1906 cartridge, and we have used them con- 
siderably since. Our experiences with them have been practically 
identical. This is a very tough, hard steel, and has been used quite 
a little in this country by mechanics for steel working tools. It was 
so hard that when I sent my barrel to the Springfield Armory to 
have it chambered and fitted to a Model 1903 action the mechanics 
there broke four chambering tools in chambering it, and I had to pay 
the bill. I find that this barrel has a much greater resistance to rust 
than ordinary steel, or even nickel steel. I used this rifle for three 
years in Panama, which is probably the greatest rust-producing coun- 
try in the world, the dampness there being beyond belief. This rifle 
was out with me in the jungle almost all the time. I noticed particu- 
larly that it never had a speck of rust on it, while other barrels would 
always accumulate quite a respectable coating of rust on the muzzle 
where there is no blueing, in the course of a day's hunt. To leave a 
barrel of ordinary smokeless steel, using the .30-1906 cartridge, un- 
cleaned over night when it has been fired means plenty of red rust in 
the morning, but the anti-corro steel treated in the same way showed 
absolutely no rust the next day. Moreover, I have often found rust in 
smokeless steel barrels a week or so after they have been fired and 



BARRELS 131 

apparently perfectly cleaned, but periodical inspections of my anti- 
corro barrel have never shown a particle of rust. This barrel is such 
a good shooting one that I have never abused it to see just how much it 
would stand without developing rust. I know it will rust eventually 
because I was once upset with it when 'way out at sea on an unin- 
habited coast in a dug-out native canoe, and the rifle was under salt 
water for several hours. I dismounted the rifle entirely and wiped it 
off well, but there was evidently one spot under the wood of the fore- 
arm that I overlooked, and on dismounting it several months later I 
found quite a little coating of rust in a spot about as big as a ten- 
cent piece. I have only fired this barrel about 500 rounds, not enough 
to show any signs of erosion, but on account of its extreme hardness 
I would expect it to resist erosion better than our own steels. Mr. 




Fig. 33 
Floor plate of Springfield sporting rifle owned by the author, showing engraving 

and coat of arms 

Crossman in discussing this steel says : " It is not always possible to 
care for a rifle barrel as per schedule, and there are times, as any ex- 
perienced hunter knows, when one is so dog-tired, and so ready to 
crawl into the blankets and rest the weary muscles and aching bones, 
that one does not give a fig for what happens to the dog-goned rifle 
that weighed fifty pounds when dragged back to camp that evening. 
It is for such occasions that we of experience get when we can, Poldi 
barrels." Of course these barrels cannot be obtained at the present 
time. I consider myself lucky to have a barrel of this excellent steel, 
and the rifle has been my favorite hunting arm for the past four 
years. It is shown in Fig. 32. 

An enormous amount of experimenting has been done with a view 
to determining the best shape and design for the lands and grooves 
of the barrel. Invention has run riot in this respect. There have been 
produced barrels with all number of grooves from two to sixteen, 
with rectangular, " U " shaped, triangular, and rounded grooves, and 
even with a simple oval bore. Of recent years the ordnance depart- 
ments of various nations have had facilities to test to the fullest extent 
all these different forms of rifling, with the result that they have 
determined that the difference between most of them as far as accuracy, 



132 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

wear, and resistance to erosion are concerned is microscopic. Practi- 
cally all nations and manufacturers have adopted a rifling with square 
corners to the grooves and lands, and with either four or six grooves. 
In .30-caliber, which is the average caliber, the grooves are usually 
made about .004 inch deep. The grooves are almost always of an even 
number as it has been found easier and cheaper in manufacture to 
cut two grooves at a time, but undoubtedly a more perfect barrel can 
be cut by cutting only one groove at a time, this being the method used 
by Mr. H. M. Pope, who produces the finest handmade barrels in 
the world. Perhaps the best form of rifling is one with square upper 
corners to the lands, but with slightly rounded lower corners to the 
grooves as shown in Fig. 34, " A " being the ordinary rifling as used 
by most governments and manufacturers today, and " B " being this 




A B 

Fig. 34 
' A. Pope special high power rifling. B. U. S. Government rifling. 

special rifling. It is claimed that the stiff jacket of the bullet will not 
adapt itself to a perfectly square corner at the bottom of the groove, 
and that a little gas always escapes here. As proof of this rifles cut 
with the special rifling show a few feet more velocity than those cut 
with the ordinary rifling. Recently one manufacturer has adopted a 
segmental cut for his rifling, practically a double oval bore, with 
rounded grooves and lands, claiming less wear, easier cleaning, and 
not so much strain on the bullet jacket. Undoubtedly he gets the last 
two, but the writer believes that more wear and friction must result 
through the tendency of the bullet to creep up and jam to a certain 
extent on the rounded driving edge of the groove. 

The twist of the rifling in American arms varies from one turn in 
60 inches to one turn in yV2 inches. The longer the bullet in respect 
to its diameter, the quicker the twist must be in order to maintain the 
gyrostatic stability of the bullet during flight; that is, to keep it from 



BARRELS 133 

flying point on, instead of turning over and over. Also, the higher the 
velocity of the bullet the slower the twist may be. For example, the 
twist of rifling for the .50-100 Winchester express cartridge, which 
has a very short bullet in relation to its diameter, is only one turn in 
60 inches, while the twist of rifling for the .30-40-220 cartridge, which 
has a very long, small caliber bullet, is one turn in 10 inches. There 
used to be quite a little difficulty with the .25-20 cartridge in the days 
of black powder in keeping the 86-grain bullet flying point on. Many 
bullets would turn over, and pass through the target sideways, making 
a keyhole shot, so called because the shape of the hole in the target re- 
sembled a keyhole. But with the introduction of smokeless powder it 
was possible to load enough smokeless powder in the small shell to 
increase the velocity enough to overcome this tendency to keyhole. 

A poorly chambered barrel, or poor ammunition and bullets, require 
a quicker twist than when the conditions of barrel and cartridge are 
conducive to accuracy. Thus ordinarily the various .30-caliber United 
States Government barrels require- a 10-inch twist to get the best re- 
sults, but with the fine hand-made barrels of this caliber as made by 
Mr. H. M. Pope, a 14-inch twist gives perfect results up to 1200 
yards at least. It often happens that the twist of rifling given to a 
certain barrel by a manufacturer is sufficient to keep the bullet flying 
point on up to a certain range, but after that range is passed there is a 
tendency to keyhole because the velocity has been reduced. Tendency 
to keyhole with any rifle can be overcome by either increasing the 
velocity, or shortening the bullet, or providing more perfect bullets, 
provided that this tendency is not caused by faulty chambering of the 
barrel or defect in the rifling. Occasionally one sees a .22-calber, rim- 
fire barrel which persists in keyholing its bullets, and when the cause is 
investigated it is found to be due to a very dirty bore, or to one very 
badly leaded. Some riflemen think that it is best to use the slowest 
twist that will spin a bullet perfectly. Certainly a slow twist re- 
quires very perfect ammunition to do good work, and perfect chamber- 
ing too. I would rather have a twist a little quicker than ordinary so 
as to handle possible defects in ammunition. Quick twists of course 
cause more friction, heat, and consequently more wear on the bore. 

Formerly the most popular barrel was the octagonal, or eight- 
sided one. The only possible excuse for such a barrel was that it could 
more easily be held level ; that is, it helped to overcome any tendency 
to cant, or lean the rifle in aiming. As against this the octagonal barrel 
is more difficult to make than the round barrel, and it is more liable 



i 3 4 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

to be disfigured on its exterior by blows and cuts. But more important 
than these, the metal in such a barrel is not uniformly distributed around 
the bore ; there is unequal expansion when the barrel becomes heated, 
and there is not such a uniform flip or vibration on discharge. Also 
for a given strength of barrel, the octagonal barrel weighs more than 
the round. Octagonal barrels are now practically obsolete, being 
seen only on the older models of tubular magazine rifles. 

A heavy, thick barrel will always give better results than a thin taper 
one. It shoots more consistently, and it maintains its elevation better 
from day to day. Also it is not so much affected by slight differences 
in the load, and for this reason alone it is more accurate than the thin 
barrel, particularly at short ranges, where the difference in velocity 
does not enter into the matter so much. A thick barrel will also fre- 
quently shoot both full-charged and light gallery or small game loads 
with practically the same elevation and windage at short ranges, and 
this is a decided advantage to the hunter, and to those looking for an 
all-around rifle. But of course a -thick barrel greatly increases the 
weight of the rifle, and makes it muzzle heavy. The heaviest barrel now 
made is the No. 3 barrel for the Winchester single shot rifle, but 
formerly this rifle used to be made to order with No. 4 and No. 5 
barrels, a No. 5 barrel, 30 inches long, making a rifle which weighed 
about 15 pounds. The Winchester single shot rifle with No. 3 round 
barrel, 30 inches long, weighs from 9 to 9^ pounds according to 
caliber, and is a very muzzle-heavy rifle. I regard the barrels fur- 
nished for the Model 1895 T1 ^ e m -3° Model 1906, .35 W. C. F., and 
.405 W. C. F. calibers as being almost ideal in their exterior propor- 
tions. These barrels are 24 inches long, rather thick at the breech, with 
a straight even taper to muzzle. They present just about the right 
combination of stiffness with the modern requirement of light weight. 

Many barrels have slots cut in them for sights, and also usually 
a slot cut on the under side of the barrel for securing a base to which 
the forearm screw is fastened. There is no excuse for any of these 
slots. They take away from a barrel much of its stiffness, and increase 
the flip or vibration which takes place during firing. There is no use at 
all in providing a heavy stiff barrel in the effort to increase accuracy, 
and then allowing the manufacturer to defeat the whole idea by cutting 
on the under side of the barrel a big, deep slot simply for the purpose 
of dovetailing a base into the barrel to screw a forearm screw into, 
when he could with much less expense and trouble screw the screw 
into the barrel in the first place and avoid the slot. 



BARRELS 135 

The muzzle of the barrel flips, vibrates, or bends down and then 
up when it is fired, and usually the flip is greater the more powerful 
the cartridge. The character of the flip is such that even at short 
ranges where the velocity does not count for much the more power- 
ful a cartridge is the higher will it strike on the target, because it de- 
parts from the muzzle when the rifle barrel towards the muzzle is 
at a higher point in its vibration. Light and heavily charged cart- 
ridges do not have the same starting point when fired from the barrel. 
This is explained fully in Chapter XIX. There are some exceptions 
to this rule that the stronger charge strikes higher, and the Ross 
Rifle Company have taken advantage of this fact in designing the barrel 
for their .280 rifle, and this explains the peculiar taper of the Ross 
.280 barrel at the breech. The idea is so to arrange the vibrations of 
the barrel that the low velocity cartridge will depart from the muzzle 
at a higher point in the vibration than does the higher velocity cart- 
ridge. Thus the company attempts to nullify the effect of the small 
differences in velocity which are always found in all ammunition, 
making the low velocity cartridge depart from the muzzle with a 
slightly greater elevation than does the high velocity load. By this is 
not meant full-charged and short-range cartridges, but two cartridges, 
we will say, one giving 3030 feet per second and the other 3050 feet 
per second velocity. 

It would seem that the details of chambering properly come under 
the head of barrels, but the matter of chambering is so intimately 
connected with accuracy that I have been forced to deal with it in 
the chapter devoted to that subject. The accuracy of a barrel depends 
upon the correctness of its design, and the accuracy of workmanship. 
Luck has nothing to do with it, except that among a number of poor 
barrels one may happen to be accurate because, entirely by accident, 
it happened to be made nearly correctly. Following the lead of Dr. 
Mann, riflemen have come to call an extremely accurate barrel a 
" gilt-edge " barrel. I would call such a barrel one that is capable of 
delivering ten consecutive shots within a one-inch circle at 100 yards, 
or a 2%-inch circle at 200 yards. Such accuracy is practically im- 
possible with machine-made barrels, because about the closest such 
workmanship can be executed is within .001 inch. Pope barrels are 
almost always gilt-edge barrels because Mr. Pope has the rare skill 
of being able to finish his work within .0002 inch of being perfect. In 
fact I personally know of one barrel which he made for Dr. Mann, 
on which he performed a certain piece of work to within .0001 inch. 



CHAPTER VI 

STOCKS, FOREARMS, BALANCE, AND WEIGHT 

' I V HE stocks and forearms of the ordinary factory-made American 
-*■ rifles are made of American walnut. This wood makes a very 
satisfactory stock, strong and of fair appearance, but it has not the 
figure, nor will it take the polish, of the imported stocks. Our selected 
stocks are made from European walnut obtained for the most part in 
the southeastern part of France. It is called by the trade " English 
walnut," but practically none of it is grown in England, although I 
believe we import it from English dealers. English walnut is simply 
a trade name to designate a finely figured variety suitable for the 
better gun stocks. Italian walnut is heavier than French, is not so 
bright in color, has plenty of dark veins, but the background is one 
hued instead of having the yellow, orange, and neutral tints of the 
finest woods. Circassian walnut furnishes the very finest stocks, but 
it is seldom seen in this country. It is hard in grain, full of figure, 
exact in marking, bright in color, without cracks and galls. It is quite 
heavy, but has qualities which quite outweigh this disadvantage. 
The most beautifully marked stocks are cut from the portion of the 
tree where the roots and trunk join. The wood should be seasoned 
for at least a year in a dry storehouse without artificial heat before 
being made up into stocks. It should be so selected and cut that the 
grain at the grip is always straight so as to give the necessary strength 
at the weakest part. 

Stocks are sometimes made of beech, bird's-eye maple, cherry, and 
tulip wood, but all these are inferior to walnut. Bird's-eye maple used 
to be used quite extensively for rifle stocks, particularly on muzzle- 
loading Kentucky rifles. It makes a nice looking stock, but it is too 
brittle, and requires varnish to give it a good polish. 

The cheaper stocks are simply smoothed and varnished. This 
method of finishing is best suited to American walnut which, as a 
rule, does not take a good oil polish, but a varnished stock does not 
retain its good appearance long when in use. It becomes scratched and 
unsightly very quickly from ordinary field use. By far the best polish 

136 



STOCKS, FOREARMS, BALANCE, AND WEIGHT 137 

is what is known as dull London oil finish. It consists in smoothing 
down the wood very finely, repeatedly wetting the surface to raise the 
grain, and then polishing again, until finally a surface is obtained on 
which the grain will no longer raise up with a fuzzy surface when it 
becomes wet. The stock is then polished by repeated rubbing with 
raw linseed oil, each coat being rubbed in by hand until the surface is 
dry. The finest stocks sometimes have as many as thirty coats rubbed 
in, and the process takes several weeks to complete. This gives a 
beautiful polish which brings out all the grain of the wood, and makes a 
smooth, velvet-like surface, without the glassy shine of varnish, but 
with the beautiful dull luster of pumice-rubbed mahogany. This 
polish persists in spite of rain, perspiration, and scratches ; moreover, 
it may always be renewed practically as good as new by simply rubbing 
in a coat of raw linseed oil, placing a little of the oil in the palm of the 
hand and rubbing it well in until the stock becomes warm from the 
friction, and the surface becomes dry. 

It is a decided advantage to have the grip of the stock and the 
center of the forearm checked, as this adds to security in holding, par- 
ticularly in warm climates where the hands are slippery with perspira- 
tion, and in cold climates where gloves are worn. Good checking also 
adds to the appearance of the arm. The checking should not be too 
fine as it will defeat its purpose, that of keeping the hands from slip- 
ping. Nor should it be too coarse as it will then not look well. 
The size of check used on Winchester rifles is about right. Plain 
checking with a plain border looks best. Fancy carving is out of place 
on a rifle, savoring too much of the cheap and gaudy. 

Wherever the receiver will permit of it, the stock should have a 
pistol grip. This is a great aid to steady holding, and to the quick 
operation of the rifle in rapid fire. The right hand should do most of 
the work of holding the rifle to the shoulder, leaving the left hand 
without strain to point and direct the rifle. If there be no pistol grip, 
either the right hand must grasp the small of the stock unduly hard to 
pull it back against the shoulder, thus interfering with the flexibility and 
unrestraint of the trigger finger, or else the left hand must grasp the 
forearm hard to pull the butt back against the shoulder, in which 
case it will be under strain and will not be able so well to hold the rifle 
steadily and without tremor. 

When purchasing a new arm, if the rifleman is able to afford extras 
over the ordinary factory product, the one which will pay most is a 
hand-made stock built to fit him personally. A well fitting stock is 



138 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

more important than fine walnut, checking, or pistol grips, but as a rule 
it is only the expert rifleman who appreciates this. The fitted stock 
insures steadier holding, makes the rifle come to the shoulder almost 
perfectly directed at the mark, and thus increases the rapidity of fire, 
particularly the rapidity with which an accurately aimed first shot can 
be gotten off. When a rifleman has a stock which fits him perfectly 
he will find after a time that he becomes so used to his rifle, and to the 
instinctive pointing of it, that he can do good shooting even at night 
when he cannot see his sights. 

Very little attention has been given to the fit of stock by American 
manufacturers, but there are a few private gunmakers in this country 
who have the art down to perfection. The ordinary factory stock is 
either much too short, or else it is too straight for the average man. 
Factory stocks are supposed to fit the average man, but constant experi- 
menting on a great number of men with stocks of all dimensions for the 
past ten years has convinced me that they are far from correct, As a 
rule they are suitable only for men with very short arms, and thick, 
short necks. 



«S or »i«.«T - 




Fig. 35 
Showing method of measuring a stock 

To measure a rifle stock, lay the rifle on its side on a board floor. 
Place a long nail in the floor a foot in front of the muzzle, and 
another a foot in the rear of the butt. Stretch a thin thread tightly 
from one nail to the other at such a distance above the floor that the 
thread will be at the same height as the front and rear sights. Care- 
fully bring the rifle sights up against the thread so that the tip of the 
front sight, and the middle of the notch of the rear sight (or the center 
of the peep hole of the rear sight), just touch it without forcing it out 
of a straight line. This thread now marks the line of sight. Measure 
the distance at right angles to the thread, from the thread to the comb 
of the stock, and from the thread to the heel of the stock. Measure the 
distance from the middle of the trigger to the middle of the butt-plate. 
Figure 35 shows the method. The average dimensions of factory 
stocks are as follows : 



STOCKS, FOREARMS, BALANCE, AND WEIGHT 139 

Winchester Stocks 

Length from middle of trigger to middle of butt plate 13% inches 

Drop from line of sight to comb 2 inches 

Drop from line of sight to heel 2% inches 

Savage Stocks 

Length from trigger to middle of butt plate 13 inches 

Drop from line of sight to comb 1% inches 

Drop from line of sight to heel 3 inches 

Experience has shown that the following dimensions more perfectly 
fit the average American: 

Length from middle of trigger to middle of butt plate 13% inches 

Drop from line of sight to comb 1% inches 

Drop from line of sight to heel 3^ inches 

The small man will do a little better with a length of 13M to 13% 
inches, and a drop at heel of 3 inches, and the very tall man with a 
length of 14 inches, but other dimensions the same. 

It is a difficult matter for the novice to tell whether a stock fits him 
correctly or not. He must first learn the various firing positions, and 
have some actual experience in shooting. Really, a man is not in 
position to tell whether a stock fits him until he has been shooting for 
several years. To determine whether the stock fits correctly, take the 
rifle and throw it up to the shoulder several times, so that the butt- 
plate is perfectly fitted to the hollow of the shoulder, being neither too 
high nor too low. Do not aim at anything in particular. If it seems 
to come up easily to the shoulder and to be in perfect control, select a 
mark ten or fifteen feet distant, and at about the height of the shoulder. 
Throw up the rifle quickly, while looking only at the mark, the cheek 
snuggling down to the left side of the stock. Hold the rifle still, 
close the left eye, glance through the sights, and see if they are directed 
close to the mark. Repeat this a number of times, and if it is found 
that the sights come close to the mark each time, with no tendency to 
be either high or low, that the eye seems to be led each time directly 
into the line of sight by the comb, and that the butt-plate comes up 
easily to the shoulder, just escaping it on coming up, and having to 
be brought back the minimum distance against the shoulder, and that 
it sticks well there, the stock probably fits all right. If the sights 
point much below the mark the stock is either too crooked, or too 
short, or the rifle may be very muzzle heavy. If the sights point above 
the mark the stock is too straight, or else the toe of the stock is too 
far to the rear, the butt-plate being set at the wrong angle. 



140 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 




Fig. 36 
An "under and over" combination rifle and shotgun made for the author by 
Fred Adolph of Genoa, N. Y. Top barrel 20 gauge shotgun. Under barrel 
•30-30 W. C. F. rifle. An excellent all around arm, particularly for South 
American shooting. 

It is almost always best to purchase the rifle with the cheapest factory 
stock obtainable, and, after having sighted the rifle in, proceed to alter 
the stock roughly by padding or cutting down the comb, and by altering 
the position of the butt-plate, and padding under the butt-plate to obtain 
the right length of stock, until the makeshift seems to fit correctly. 
There is a reason for proceeding in this way. The line of sight from 
which the manufacturers seem to measure their stocks apparently is 
fixed arbitrarily, or else measured only from the regular factory sights, 
and when one places special sights on the rifle the line of sight, and 
consequently the drop, changes. Thus the dimension of the Savage 
factory stock is given above, but I found that when I had adjusted 
special Lyman sights to one of these Model 1899 rifles and sighted 
it in correctly at 50 yards the drop of the stock became : Drop at comb 
2M inches, drop at heel 3% inches. When the rifle is correctly sighted 
the gunmaker can construct a stock to have the exact drop desired, but 
until this is done it is much a matter of guess work as to just where the 
line of sight is coming. 

The dimensions of the pistol grip are of importance also. On a num- 



STOCKS, FOREARMS, BALANCE, AND WEIGHT 141 

ber of rifles the so-called pistol grip is merely an excrescence some dis- 
tance in rear of the grip, and of no use at all. The pistol grip should 
be well curved, and pushed up close to the trigger. The distance meas- 
ured from the middle of the trigger to the front edge of the pistol grip 
cap should be between 4 and 4^ inches. On many rifles, however, the 
finger lever or the lower tang limit the position of the pistol grip, and the 
grip will have to conform. 

It is an advantage to have the stock made with a slight " cast off " ; 
that is to say, the butt-plate, instead of having its center in a vertical 




Fig. 37 

Springfield rifle remodelled by A. O. Neidner with stock for owner who shoots 

right handed but aims with the left eye 

line dropped from the prolongation of the axis of the bore, should be 
slightly to the right of this line (for a right-handed shot), say about % 
inch. This will make it easier for the right eye to get into the line of 
sight. Cast-off is particularly good where the rifleman is stout, or has 
a very muscular shoulder and chest, and in some cases it is best to 
have a little more cast-off at the toe of the stock than at the heel. 

The butt-plate is an important part of the rifle. There is very little 
excuse for the rifle butt-plate often seen on American rifles. It is a 
relic of the muzzle-loading days when the rifle had a very heavy, long 
barrel, and something to prevent the stock from slipping up on the 
shoulder due to the leverage exerted by the heavy muzzle was desirable. 
Lately some have claimed that they like it with lever-action rifles be- 
cause it seems to stick well to the shoulder when the lever is worked in 
rapid fire. There is some excuse for it, perhaps, from this stand- 
point, as the ordinary, flat shotgun, rubber butt-plate slips badly when 
rapid fire with the rifle at the shoulder is attempted, but the more 
modern steel butt-plates, especially the particular one to be described, 
do not have this fault. The rifle butt-plate greatly increases the effect 



142 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

of recoil, is hard to get quickly to the shoulder, does not adapt itself 
to the shape of a man's shoulder, and is very prone to stick to the 
shoulder. In selecting a new rifle it should never be chosen. 

Likewise the rubber butt-plate often seen on rifles, and particularly 
the boy-sized, rubber butt-plate often seen on rifles produced in later 
years, is to be avoided. Its shape is bad, it is slippery, and it won't 
last any length of time at all under the usage that a rifle receives. 
Particularly in mountainous countries it is absolutely necessary at 
times to use the butt of the rifle as an aid to climbing, especially in 
rock work. This will scar, disfigure, and break a rubber butt-plate in 
a little while. On one trip in Montana I noticed that every rubber 
butt-plate that I saw was broken from this cause. A good checked or 
roughened steel shotgun butt-plate costs no more than a rubber butt- 
plate, and should always be chosen. The Winchester Company make 
a very good checked steel, shotgun butt-plate which they furnish at no 
extra cost on special order. By far the best butt-plate that I have 
ever seen, and the one which I have adopted for all my rifles, is that 
furnished on the Mannlicher-Schoenauer rifles imported into this coun- 
try before the war. It is a shotgun butt-plate of steel, roughly checked, 
and rounded so as to fit the shoulder perfectly. Moreover, it is very 
slightly hollowed so that it sticks to the shoulder most perfectly, either 
with lever or bolt-action rifles when the mechanism of the rifle is 
worked in rapid fire. It has a trap door in it so that recesses can be cut 
in the stock under the butt-plate for field cleaner, small oil can, a few 
cleaning patches, and a broken shell extractor. The rifle illustrated 
in Fig. 32 is equipped with one of these butt-plates. It cannot be had 
at the present time, but I am in hopes that in the near future at least 
one factory or private gunmaker will see the light and place it on the 
market. 

The butt-plate should always be placed on the stock at a very slight 
angle, the toe of the butt-plate being just a little farther forward than 
the heel. This keeps the butt from slipping downward when the rifle is 
at the shoulder, particularly in rapid fire. With the modern, properly 
balanced rifle the tendency of the butt-plate is always to slip down on 
the shoulder instead of up. Some American rifles have the butt- 
plate placed on at just the opposite angle to this, and it is a confounded 
nuisance, particularly with a lever-action rifle. 

A cheek piece is a slight advantage on a rifle stock, and many rifle- 
men think that it adds considerably to the appearance of the stock. 
Undoubtedly it helps to accustom the cheek always to find the same 



STOCKS, FOREARMS, BALANCE, AND WEIGHT 143 

position on the stock each time, thus enabling one quickly to get the 
eye into the line of sight. Most cheek pieces have sharp edges, and 
these quickly become dented and broken down, thus greatly disfiguring 
the rifle. The cheek piece designed by the author has a rounded edge 
which gives a very fine appearance, and is free from this fault. After 
nine years in mountains and jungle this cheek piece shown in Figs. 
20 and 32 still retains its good appearance. If a cheek piece is added 
to the stock the butt should have a little more cast off than when the 
stock is without this addition. A cheek piece is a good thing to im- 
prove the balance on a rifle that is a little muzzle heavy, as most of our 
repeating rifles are. 

I am a great admirer of the standard forearms as made on the 
Winchester repeating and single-shot rifles. Their shape, size, and 
location is just about right, both from the standpoint of utility 
and looks, and the rifleman who has a forearm made to order cannot 
go far wrong in adopting the Winchester forearm as a model, par- 
ticularly those on the fancy models of the Model 1886 and 1895 rifles. 
The location of sling swivels on stock and forearm is covered in 
Chapter XXV. 

A rifle should be well balanced so that it comes up to the shoulder 
easily and quickly, so that it feels lively in the hand and not like a 
lump of metal and wood, and so that it is easily carried on the shoulder 
and in the hand. Balance is a hard thing to explain on paper. It is 
a thing rather to be appreciated only by feel. A properly balanced 
rifle feels lighter than it is, and is easily handled. A poorly balanced 
one is clumsy and slow. When balanced across a sharp edge, such as a 
ruler, the rifle should balance at a point four or five inches in front 
of the trigger. Most American rifles balance quite a little in front of 
this point, very little attention being paid to this detail by our manu- 
facturers. The majority of our rifles are muzzle heavy, particularly 
the tubular magazine repeaters having full magazines and rifle butt- 
stocks. A little muzzle heaviness does not hurt much; in fact, it 
makes a rifle a little steadier to hold in deliberate fire, and for this 
reason Schuetzen target rifles are always made quite muzzle heavy. 
But if the hunting rifle is too heavy at the muzzle it is difficult to bring 
it into alignment quickly, and hard to swing it in aiming at moving 
game. 

The exact point of balance is not everything by any means. There 
must also be a nice proportion of weight between barrel, action, and 
stock. Some rifles balance at the right point, but their receivers and 



i 4 4 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

actions are so heavy that they are decidedly breech heavy and clumsy. 
The Winchester Model 1895 and the Remington auto-loading rifles 
are particular offenders in this respect. One of the best balanced 
arms that I know of is the Winchester Model 1886 rifle when made 
with a 24-inch, .33-caliber barrel, half-magazine, pistol grip stock, 
and shotgun butt-plate. Springfield rifles when remodelled into sport- 
ing arms by a good workman can be made to balance perfectly, and 
as the actual balance comes almost in the middle of the magazine, the 
balance persists no matter how many cartridges are in the magazine. 
Of course the balance of a tubular magazine rifle changes constantly 
according to the number of cartridges in the magazine. If the 
cartridges be heavy, and the magazine a full length one, the rifle is 
extremely heavy and handles badly when the magazine is full, but 
there is little difference in the balance of a half magazine no matter 
how many cartridges are in it, unless the cartridges are very heavy. 

American big game rifles weigh from about 9 pounds for the heavier 
arms to about 6 pounds for the lighter ones when made up in carbine 
style. Certain models are made in " featherweight " style with very 
thin barrels, but these are not advisable, and if the sportsman is after 
light weight arms he had better adopt a carbine than take one of the 
very thin barrel models as the shooting will be much more reliable. 
It is possible to cut down the weight of our rifles considerably by 
hollowing out the stock, and removing excess metal from certain of 
the parts, including the receiver, but the rifleman had better entrust 
such jobs to a very skilled gunmaker, otherwise he is liable seriously 
to weaken the rifle, and even rob it of its margin of safety. The ideal 
weight for the big game rifle is about 7% pounds, except for the very 
heaviest calibers which often need a weight of almost 8^ pounds. Of 
course the lighter a rifle the more it recoils theoretically, but actually 
balance and fit of stock have so much to do with the feel of the recoil 
that it is possible so to model a 6%-pound rifle that the recoil will 
not be felt as much as a poorly fitting one of 9 pounds firing the 
same cartridge. Other things being equal, of course the heavy rifle 
will tire a sportsman more on a long day's hunt, but here balance 
and fit also enter, and in many cases a poorly balanced rifle of 7 
pounds weight will tire one more in the course of a day over hard 
ground than a 13-pound, double-barrelled English elephant rifle of 
superb balance and design. 

On the other side of the fence, most of our .22-caliber, rim-fire 
rifles, particularly the repeaters, are entirely too light and small. The 



STOCKS, FOREARMS, BALANCE, AND WEIGHT 145 

whole rifle seems to be boy sized, and there is certainly a demand in 
our market for a decent sized, .22-caliber, repeating rifle with full- 
sized stock weighing about 6V2 pounds, and being so made that adjust- 
able sights can be fitted to it. At the present time the only man-sized, 
.22 rifle on the market is the Winchester single shot. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE SIGHTS 

SIGHTS are placed on all rifles for the purpose of enabling one to 
aim accurately. As the rifle fires but one projectile at each shot 
it is essential that the aim be much more accurate than with a shot- 
gun, where the top of the barrel is merely brought into approximate 
alignment with the object it is desired to hit. To aim any long object, 
like the barrel of a rifle, it is of course necessary to have two guides 
or sights which can be brought into the straight line from the eye 
to the center of the target. This line is called the " line of sight." 
The two guides or sights are called the front sight placed on top 
of the barrel near the muzzle, and the rear sight placed either on top 
of the barrel a few inches in front of the breech, on top of the re- 
ceiver, or secured to the top of the tang. These two sights are aligned 
by trial (that is, made high or low, and moved to the right or left) 
so that when they are brought into the line of sight and the rifle 
fired the bullet will strike the center of the bull's-eye at the farther 
end of the line of sight. 

There are an endless variety of sights, from the simplest forms to the 
most complex. We may divide them into two general classes; iron 
sights and telescope sights. The former are the metallic sights, always 
two in number, front and rear, usually seen on rifles, and familiar 
to any one who has handled a rifle. The latter are small telescopes 
secured to the barrel of the rifle by adjustable mountings. They con- 
tain cross-hairs similar to those in the telescope of a surveyor's 
transmit, aim being taken by looking through the telescope at the 
magnified image of the target, and getting the cross-hairs to intersect 
where one wishes his bullet to hit. Telescope sights are dealt with in 
a subsequent chapter. 

The simplest forms of iron sights are known as open sights. The 
front sight consists of a thin blade of metal affixed to the top of the 
barrel directly over the center of the bore, near the muzzle, with one 
edge towards the breech. The rear sight is generally placed on the 
top of the barrel a few inches forward from the breech. It also con- 

146 



THE SIGHTS 



147 



sists of a blade of metal, but is placed with its flat side toward the 
breech and eye. The top edge usually contains a " V " or " U " shaped 
notch at the center. See Fig. 38. 

The act of aiming with open sights consists in so aligning the 
sights and the target that the front sight appears in the notch of the 





TROWT SIGHT 






S">d. V,«. Views from Breech 

REAR SI6HT 

Fig. 38 
Common American front and rear sights, showing method of attachment to the 

barrel 

rear sight, and a prolongation of this alignment strikes the target as 
shown in Fig. 39. The accuracy of aim depends upon aligning the 
sights exactly the same each time. For example, the blade of the 
front sight must always appear exactly in the middle of the notch 
of the rear sight, and the top of the front sight must always appear 
exactly the same distance above the bottom of this notch. The ac- 
curacy with which this can be done time after time depends upon the 
ability of the eye of the individual to align objects, and accurately to 
measure and compare small objects by eye. This sense of proportion 
varies with individuals, and thus the accuracy with which each can 
aim differs. Accurate aiming may be said to consist of impressing 
on the retina of the eye by constant practice a memory of the view 
or " picture " of the sights and target correctly aligned, and then the 
careful alignment so that this picture appears to be exactly duplicated 
each time aim is taken. 

It has been found that while individuals soon acquire a consider- 
able degree of accuracy and expertness in aiming, yet there is always 
a certain amount of error, and that with open sights the differences 



148 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

in light will cause an appreciable difference in alignment even when 
the picture appears correct. It has also been found that the eye is 
capable of centering objects with much more accuracy than it is of 
producing an alignment similar to getting a front sight exactly the 

I 2 

© ® 

3 4 

Fig. 39 
Method of aligning sights 

1. English " V " open express sight. 

2. Open " U " sight. 

3. Target peep sight with cup disc 

4. Lyman peep sight 

same every time in the notch of a rear sight. This has led to the 
perfection of another form of iron sight called the peep sight, the 
rear sight consisting of a small round aperture in a plate, or of a sort of 
ring. With peep sights the act of aiming consists of getting the front 
sight to appear with its top exactly in the center of the peep hole, 
and then moving the rifle so as to bring the target into this align- 
ment. The natural aptitude of the eye for centering objects enables 
one to do this with considerable accuracy. Fig. 39 shows this method 
of aiming, 3 being the ordinary peep sight usually seen on target rifles, 
and 4 being what is known as the Lyman system. In both cases the 
peep hole appears quite large. It looks large as shown in the figure 
when the eye is held near to it in aiming, but as a matter of fact the 
exact size of the aperture illustrated in 3 would probably be .05 inch 
diameter, and with the Lyman system the peep hole is about .10 inch 
in diameter. The Lyman sight, as will be seen, permits of an almost 
unimpeded view of the target during aim, and for this reason it is 
easier to align quickly, particularly on a moving target, and it can be 
used in darker lights than most sights. The Lyman peep sight is 
usually seen on hunting rifles. 

As we have seen in Chapter II, the bullet begins to drop the instant 



THE SIGHTS 



149 



that it leaves the muzzle of the rifle. The sights can therefore be 
adjusted or aligned for only one range at a time. Thus if the sights 
are adjusted so that the bullet, when fired, will hit the bull's-eye at 
100 yards, the bullet will leave the muzzle under the line of sight, 
and travelling slightly upward, it will cross the line of sight a few 
yards in front of the muzzle, and will continue to rise above the line of 
sight up to a point a yard or two more than half way to the 100 
yard target (say 53 yards), and will then fall toward the line of sight 
until at the target 100 yards from the muzzle it again falls into the 
line of sight by striking the center of the bull's-eye. With the sights 
adjusted correctly for 100 yards, and with aim taken at the center of 
the bull's-eye, it will be apparent that if the target be 50 yards away 
the bullet will be travelling above the line at that range, and hence 
it will strike the target above the bull's-eye. And if the target be at 
200 yards instead of at 100 yards, the 100 yard sight being used, the 




Fig. 40 

The alignment of eye, rear sight, front sight, and bulls-eye ; also the relation of 

the line of sight to the path of the bullet (trajectory) 

bullet will continue to fall after passing 100 yards, and will strike 
below the bull's-eye. This is graphically shown in Fig. 40. A further 
examination of this figure will show that if we wish to adjust the 
sights to strike an object 200 yards away instead of only 100 yards, 
when aim is taken normally as explained, we must either lower the 
front sight or raise the rear sight. Doing either of these has the 
effect of causing the barrel to point higher into the air when aim 
is being taken, and therefore the bullet rises higher into the air, and 
travelling upward above the line of sight, falls to the line at (say) 
200 yards. For mechanical reasons this adjustment for ranges is ac- 
complished on the rear sight by constructing it so that it can be 
slightly raised or lowered. The simplest forms of iron sights do not 
permit of any adjustment for range, and hence are correctly adjusted 
for only one range. With such non-adjustable sights if the object 
be at only half the range for which the sights are set it will be neces- 
sary to aim below the object to hit it, and if the object be beyond this 



i 5 o THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

distance it will be necessary to aim above the object to secure a 
hit. The rifleman must thus calculate how much the bullet will rise 
or fall, and must estimate this amount to hold high or low in aiming. 
This in effect introduces two guesses into the act of aiming with 
fixed sights at any range other than the one at which the sights are 
correct, and if in addition we have to estimate the range, another 
guess is introduced. These two or three guesses lead to considerable 
inaccuracy. Therefore it is much better practice to have a rear sight 
that can be raised or lowered for the different ranges, in which case 
there is at most but one guess, that of the exact range. Military 
sights have such adjustments, and there is a scale on the rear sight 
showing how high to place it for ioo, 200, 300, 400, 500 yards, etc. 
If one knows the exact range he can then set his sight accordingly, 
aim at the bull's-eye, and be sure of hitting it, always of course 
provided he does his part correctly, and the sights are correct and 
rifle accurate. 

It is also very advantageous to have an arrangement for lateral 
adjustment on one of the sights. A strong wind from one side or 
the other may drift the bullet causing it to strike to the right or left 
of the bull's-eye, and it has been found that much more accurate 
work can be done by correcting for this with a sight adjustment than 
by estimating the velocity of the wind, the deviating effect on the 
bullet, and how much to hold to the right or left for it. This adjust- 
ment on a sight is called a wind gauge. Sometimes the wind gauge 
is placed on the rear sight, and sometimes on the front sight. 

Rifles are usually placed on the market by the manufacturers 
equipped with the simplest form of open sights, perhaps with a very 
crude arrangement for procuring a slight adjustment for elevation. 
These sights are inexpensive, and are easily understood by the novice. 
Better sights can be procured to special order, or the common sights 
can be removed and more efficient sights placed on the arm by the rifle- 
man himself. Usually the sights are so secured to the rifle that this 
can be done without tools or special knowledge. As one progresses 
in his skill in shooting he develops decided ideas regarding sights. 
The manufacturers cannot cater to a thousand ideas, and hence they 
prefer to equip their rifles with plain open sights which they acknowl- 
edge are not suitable for expert use, but which are so cheap that 
the purchaser practically loses nothing when he equips his rifle with 
better sights of a type which suits him. 



THE SIGHTS 



151 



We will now proceed to examine and discuss the various forms 
of sights commonly seen on American rifles. 

FRONT SIGHTS 

Front sights may be divided into two kinds — open and globe or 
covered. Tfce essential points in open sights are strength, stability, 
shape, visibility, and definition. Sights should be, and almost all of 
them are, constructed of hard tool steel. They must be securely 
fastened to the barrel so that they cannot be knocked out of align- 
ment easily. The old method of attachment, still seen on many rifles, 
was to give them a dovetail base, and drive them into a similar 
transverse slot in the barrel, driving the sight in always from the 
right, the sight dovetail being slightly taper to give a secure fit. Gen- 
erally this method is satisfactory, but occasionally a sight secured in 
this manner is knocked out of alignment. A much better method of 
attaching the front sight is to provide a stud on the barrel with a 
longitudinal slot. The sight, in knife blade form, is fitted into the slot 
and secured by a pin. This method provides an absolutely stable 
attachment, although the sight cannot be driven a little to the right 
or left to align it, as is permitted by the former method, and all adjust- 
ment for lateral errors must be made on the rear sight. 

The necessity for visibility, particularly in hunting rifles, has led 
to the invention of an endless variety of front sights. For use in 
target shooting on a black and white target nothing can compare with 
a dead black front sight, as this gives a black and white silhouette 
effect in aiming, and the best definition of sights and target. All 
military riflemen smoke their sights with burning camphor or in the 
flame of a kerosene lamp just before starting to shoot in order to 
obtain a dead black surface on the sights. On objects other than 
black and white targets, such as big game, a sight is desired that can 
be seen clearly against the object in any light. For this reason 
hunting front sights are almost always tipped with German silver, 
copper, gold alloy, or ivory. The tip may take the form of simply 
welding a piece of one of these substances to the top and rear face 
of the sight, or the sight may be " bead " shaped, the face of the bead 
towards the breech being of one of these substances. Such tips can be 
seen in poor lights where a dead black sight would be practically in- 
visible, and they stand out plainly against dark colored objects, and the 
protective coloring of game. 



152 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

But it is very necessary also that the front sight shall not glimmer 
or glisten in the sunlight, for this will make it look much larger than 
it really is, the elevation and windage will differ, fine definition will 
be lost, and one will not be able to aim with any degree of accuracy. 
Silver, or German silver is a particular offender in this respect. A 
dull gold, or dull copper is better, but ivory is best of all. The most 
popular front sights of today have dull copper, dull gold alloy, or ivory 
beads. The two former substances have the advantage of being 
stronger, and they can be blackened with camphor smoke for target 
shooting without injuring them. The ivory bead is quite a little better 
for a rifle intended solely for game shooting. I have occasionally 
read of ivory beads breaking, but I have used them for twenty-five 
years in hard wilderness hunting, and I have never had one break, or 



2> ^^ 



Z £ Z S 

WRONG RIGHT 

Fig. 41 
Correct and incorrect shape of bead of front sight 

ever seen a broken ivory bead. Ivory beads sometimes get yellow 
from apparent age, and from oil. Wash them off with alcohol, and 
leave out in the sun for several days to bleach, and they will regain 
their original dead white color provided they are made of genuine 
ivory. I believe the question of selection between gold, copper, and 
ivory is merely one of whether the rifleman intends to do much target 
shooting with his rifle, or intends to use it solely for hunting. If the 
latter, choose the ivory bead. 

The shape of the tip of the bead is of great importance. If the 
head be rounded towards the marksman's eye, as in the first cut 
in Fig. 41, then it is a foregone conclusion that if the sun shines on 
one side of the front sight (as for example in the early morning when 
shooting to the north, and strong sunlight shines on the right hand 
side of the front sight) this side of the tip or bead will be much more 
brightly illuminated than the opposite side, and the eye in aiming will 
unconsciously favor the illuminated side, particularly when aim is 
taken hurriedly as in game shooting. This acts just as though the 
sight had been moved towards the illuminated side, and the sight will 
cause one to shoot away from the strong light. With a gold bead 



THE SIGHTS 



153 



sight rounded towards the eye I have found that my own extreme 
error from this cause is about 4 inches at 100 yards ; that is 4 inches 
lateral difference in points of impact beween strong sunlight shining 
on the right and left side of this form of sight. All open front sights 
have this fault to a greater or less degree. Even the straight, flat- 
top, front sight of the United States magazine rifle, Model 1903, when 
well blackened with camphor smoke, shows an error due to this cause 
of about 1 inch per 100 yards. A bead should be of the form shown 
in the second cut in Fig. 41, to give the minimum error from this 
cause, the edges of the bead being rounded just enough to take away 
the sharpness and tendency to chip or nick. 

The size of the tip or bead is also of considerable importance. The 
best general size seems to be Yiq inch for gold, copper, or ivory beads. 
For quick shooting at short range in the brush and dark woods, and 
for night shooting with a jack light a large bead %2 or % inch in 












Fig. 42 
Various types of front sights 



154 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



diameter, known as a " Jack " sight, is undoubtedly an advantage, but 
it is not so good for long range shooting. 

The shape of the sight blade should be such as to give the greatest 
strength, and to avoid catching in the brush. It is an advantage to 
have that portion of the steel blade of the sight which is visible from 
the rear while aiming finely checked, or roughened so that it cannot 
reflect light. The illustrations in Fig. 42 show the common, and the 
most popular and best forms of open front sight on the American 
market. 





As Open As Globe 

Beach combination sight 



Globe sight, 
with interchangeable disc 




Wind gauge sight, 
with spirit level 

Fig. 43 
Globe front sights 

A globe sight is one which has a covering of some sort, usually 
a metal cylinder, covering it to protect it from the glistening sun- 
light. This form is purely a target sight, and is intended for nothing 
else. As the sight itself is protected by the cover it is not liable to 
injury, and it can be made much finer, and give better definition than 
an open front sight. Often an aperture sight is used under the cover, 
that is one having a bead which is perforated with a small aperture 
or peep hole. In aiming the bull's-eye is centered in the aperture. 
Fig. 43 shows several types of globe sights. 



REAR SIGHTS 



The great majority of front sights show a similarity of design. 
There is a blade tipped with some visible metal or ivory, or else it is 
left untipped. Rear sights, however, are of many varieties. As be- 
fore mentioned, the simplest form of rear sight is the plain open sight 



THE SIGHTS 



i55 



consisting of a bar having a " V " or " U " shaped notch. Fig. 44 
shows one of the oldest forms of rear sights still frequently met with 
on hunting rifles. It is known as the " Buckhorn " sight because of 
the similarity of shape when viewed from the breech to a deer's 
horns. It is not a good sight, and it is remarkable that it should 
have been so popular. The shape is such that it hides much of the 




Fig. 44 
Buckhorn rear sight 




Fig. 45 
Flat top sporting rear sight 




Fig. 46 
Express rear sights 

target in aiming, and it is very difficult to get and keep the aim on 
running game with it. It is very hard to align the front sight evenly 
for elevation in the very small " V " notch at the bottom of the 
crotch. The step for elevating the sight for longer ranges is very 
crude ; the various steps meaning nothing until the rifleman has targeted 
his rifle with the sight set at each step, and at various ranges. A 
better shaped sight of the same form is that shown in Fig. 45, known 
as the Flat Top Sporting Rear Sight. Fig. 46 shows another common 
form known as the " Express " sight. The stationary sight seen in 
position for aiming is called the " standard." The " leaves " shown 
folded down are on hinges and can be raised to give additional eleva- 
tion. 



156 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



In recent years almost all manufacturers have given up other shapes 

of open rear sight for the flat top bar with the " U " notch. This 

is as it should be. The flat top helps to level the rifle, and cuts off 

no more of the target from view when 

aiming than is absolutely necessary. 

The eye naturally centers the front sight 

on the flat bar, and thus leads the front 

sight quickly into the notch. The " U " 

is the best shape for the notch as the 

Fig. 47 front sight is intended to be aligned so 

Correct method of aligning sights that its top surface shaU bg Qn & j^ 

with the flat top of the bar, and the " U " gives two sharp right angle 
corners at its upper extremities to guide the eye in getting the front 
sight to the correct height, and in the middle of the " U " every time. 
The correct method of aligning the front sight in such a rear sight is 
shown in Fig. 47, the line of sight passing through the intersection of 
the cross lines. 






Carbine rear sight 



Fig. 48 
Military type of rear open sights sometimes seen an sporting rifles 

Fig. 48 shows several of the older types of semi-military rear sights 
where a slight attempt has been made to obtain a better method of 
elevation. It is supposed that the graduations on these sights are for 
hundreds of yards of range, but as a matter of fact they are no such 
thing, as they are far from correct for any modern cartridge that I 
know of. As with the steps on the sporting rear sight, the value 



THE SIGHTS 



157 



of these markings will have to be determined by a rather extended 
course of target shooting by the owner of the rifle. For the longer 
ranges the leaf is elevated and the slide slid up or down to the de- 
sired elevation, and retained at this adjustment by friction alone. 
This method of retaining the slide in position did fairly well in the 
days of black powder and light charges, but with modern ammunition 
it is entirely inadequate, as the slide is liable to, and usually does slip 
down before the score of ten shots is completed. These sights would 
be fairly satisfactory today were the standard and slide given a clean 
cut " U " shaped notch, and a clamp screw provided for retaining the 
slide in the set position on the leaf. 




Fig. 49 
The best type of open rear sight. The Model 1902 rear sight for the Krag rifle 

Fig. 49 shows the very highest development of open rear sight. It 
is the Model of 1902 rear sight for the United States magazine rifle, 
Model 1898 (Krag). It is graduated correctly for the .30-40 cartridge 
for every 100 yards from 100 to 2000 yards, and its construction per- 
mits of any elevation between these limits. Elevation is secured by 
moving the slide up or forward on the leaf. As the slide runs along 
the upper curved surfaces of the base this elevates the eye piece. 
The eye piece also has adjustment for windage as shown, which is 
actuated by the knurl headed screw on the left side, while the screw 
on the right clamps the elevation adjustment. The eye piece has 



I5 8 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

attached to it a peep plate which can be pushed into place, thus trans- 
forming the sight from open to peep. 

Open sights are almost always attached to the barrel a few inches 
in front of the receiver. If they are placed too near to the breech 
and eye they will appear badly blurred in aiming. Therefore open 
sights always have a short sight radius, that is a short distance between 
front and rear sights. A long sight radius is very desirable as it 
minimizes errors in aim. A small error made in aligning the sights, 





---LON0 l«EF)5!6HT ■*•»■-• — -*j ^ — 




1 


♦ SHORT (ePIN) SI BUT MWWS ■* -^— — "~~ — ■ — "" " 




* 


Fig. SO 
Showing the advantage of a long sight radius 





say of .005 inch, which can hardly be detected by the eye, will cause 
much less of an error at the target with a long sight radius than with 
a short one. This is perhaps best graphically described in Fig. 50. 
A short sight radius, differences in light, dependence on sense of 
proportion in the individual, and lack of precise arrangements for 
elevation and windage adjustment are faults common to all open rear 
sights. 

Year by year rifles and ammunition have been gradually improved, 
but until very recent years aiming devices have remained practically 
the same — a blade or pointed front sight and an open bar rear sight 
with a notch in it. The best results cannot be secured from such 
sights with modern rifles and ammunition. It is a well-known fact 
that the human eye cannot focus at the same time two or more 
objects at different distances, even when they are superimposed as are 
the rear sight notch, the front sight, and the bull's-eye in the act 
of aiming with open sights. The eye in this case does its best by 
adopting a compromise focus which shows the three essentials with 
varying degree of clearness. The requisite skill is difficult of attain- 
ment even with the best of young eyes, and the results are greatly 
influenced by changes of light and other conditions. An open rear 
sight, in order to be seen at all clearly, has to be placed on the rifle 
barrel at a considerable distance from the eye when in the shooting 
position. In many cases the eye may be held when shooting stand- 
ing at sufficient distance from the sight to obtain a clear outline of it, 
but when attempting to fire in the prone position the peculiarities 
of the position make it absolutely necessary to hold the eye much 



THE SIGHTS 159 

nearer the rear sight and bad blurring results. On the other hand if 
the eye be so focused as to make the rear sight appear clear the 
bull's-eye will be badly out of focus. If the rear sight be placed a 
sufficient distance forward on the barrel to obtain clear focus in all 
positions then the sight radius is so shortened as to greatly magnify 
the results of all errors of aim as already explained. 

The optical principles of the peep or aperture sight are quite differ- 
ent. One looks through the aperture. There is no such thing as 
taking a fine or coarse sight. No attempt need be made to focus on 
the aperture. It can blur any amount, and the eye can simply 
center in the middle of the blur without the accuracy suffering in 
the slightest. This makes it necessary to attempt to focus on but 
two objects, the front sight and the bull's-eye, and experience has 
shown that if the eye be focused entirely on the bull's-eye, as it should 
be, the front sight, being at a considerable distance from the eye, will 
be seen with very good definition. The rear aperture sight, can, and 
should be, placed near the eye, as near as possible without en- 
dangering the eye from recoil, and this greatly increases the sight 
radius, and thereby considerably minimizes the errors which result 
from small imperfections in alignment. Added to these facts, the 
eye has a natural aptitude for centering objects. It can center 
a front sight or a bull's-eye much more accurately in an aperture than 
it can get it in the center of a notch, and at the same time at a uniform 
height in the notch. Moreover, differences in light do not affect its 
accuracy in making this alignment. Many arguments could be quoted 
to prove the superiority of aperture sights over open sights. For 
years match rifle shots have used nothing else. The best scores with 
all rifles have been made with aperture sights. All the world records 
have been made with either aperture or telescope sights. Nine times 
out of ten when a sportsman has once given that form of aperture 
sights best adapted to hunting a thorough trial he will thereafter use 
nothing else. 

Many men gain a false impression of the peep sight because the 
only one with which they are familiar is one of the forms which are 
placed on the barrel far away from the eye. This is not the right 
position for an aperture, and no conception of the possibilities of the 
aperture can be gained from the examination or use of a sight so 
placed. The aperture must be near the eye, either above the small of 
the stock, or certainly not further forward than the rear of the re- 
ceiver. Again, many complain that they find difficulty in exactly 



i6o 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



centering the front sight in the aperture, not realizing that if they 
pay no attention whatever to trying to center the front sight the eye will 
do it naturally and do it far more accurately than they can do it by 
taking great pains over it. The eye should simply look through the 
peep. The small size (say .05-inch average diameter) of an aperture, 
and the ease with which the true center is found by the eye, implies 
a considerable reduction of error compared with open sights. 
Although the diameter of the hole is .05 inch, the edges are blurred 
when aiming because the aperture is so near the eye and consequently 
out of focus. As a consequence the utmost distance the eye can stray 

from the exact center is about half of 
half, .05 inch — roughly .01 inch. The 
natural aptitude of the eye in centering 
objects still further reduces this error. 
An error of .01 inch can easily be made 
with open sights without the rifleman 
being at all cognizant of it. 

We can roughly divide aperture or 
peep sights into two general groups: 
The disk aperture and the Lyman peep. 
In the former group the aperture is 
placed in a plate, usually a circular 
plate, called a disk. This disk shuts 
off all view of the target except that 
portion which can be seen through the 
peep hole. This peep hole is small, 
from .03 inch to .06 inch. Figure 51 
shows a sample of this group of sights, 
and Fig. 39 shows how they appear 
when aiming at a bull's-eye target. 
This is the best form of peep for tar- 
get shooting. The disk shuts off the 
extraneous rays of light and permits 
one to see the bull's-eye with a greater 
degree of clearness, particularly when 
the source of light comes from the 
Vernier peep sight for target rifle front and shines in the shooter's eyes. 

In- addition there is what is called an 
" orthoptic " effect, the small aperture and the disk causing everything 
seen through it to appear in perfect focus. Thus the bull's-eye and 




Fig- 5i 



THE SIGHTS 



161 



front sight appear perfectly sharp, and small errors in the individual's 
vision are corrected. This group of sights is entirely for target shoot- 
ing. They cannot be used successfully for warfare or for hunting, be- 
cause they give so little view of the target and landscape around the 
target that they are of absolutely no use against moving targets. They 
cannot be used in poor lights. It is hard to catch the target and aim 
quickly with them. 

The second group — the Lyman peep sights — may be said to rep- 
resent the most modern and all around efficient form of metallic 





Fig. 52 



rig. 52 

The original Lyman peep sight, and the way it appears when aiming at running 

game 

sights. The principle was first embodied in the invention of Mr. 
William Lyman of Middlefield, Connecticut, about thirty years ago, 
but it has only been within recent years that the system has attained 
its deserved popularity. The Lyman system consists of placing the 
aperture in a very small disk so that in effect it is nothing more 
than a ring. This sight is near to the eye, and in aiming it appears 
like a blurred ring. The ring is so thin that it does not obscure a com- 
plete vision of the target and all the landscape around the target. In 



162 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

aiming the eye looks through the blurred ring, the centering ability 
of the eye causing the accurate alignment. The effect is to reduce the 
act of aiming to practically that used with the shotgun, namely placing 
the front sight on the object and pulling the trigger. It is just as 
though there were but one sight on the rifle. The rear sight causes 
no obstruction to the vision, there is no painstaking effort necessary 
to align the two sights, and it is not necessary to adopt a compromise 
focus of the eye. Fig. 52 shows the original Lyman sight and the 
method of aiming it. 

Some of the advantages of the Lyman system are: One sees the 
whole target and landscape around the target in aiming. In actual 
practice no attention need be paid to the rear sight in aiming, thus 
greatly simplifying aiming and greatly quickening it. Such a sight 
can be seen in very poor lights when open sights could not be used 
at all. The sight does not darken the target. It is very quick to 
catch and to use on running game. Aim is as accurate with it as 
with any other iron sights except the disk system of peep sight where 
the orthoptic effect allows better definition. The sight is not affected 
by light as all open rear sights are. 

Personally I have used Lyman sights on all my hunting rifles since 
1893, and I would not think of using any other system on a hunting 
rifle except a telescope sight for special uses. I also believe the Lyman 
system to be the very best for a military rifle, and in this I am borne 
out by the action of the British War Office in adopting for the En- 
field rifle the Lyman system of sighting, and, moreover, thinking so 
much of it that they made this change during the Great War. 

It was Mr. Lyman's idea, and this is correct, that the sight should 
be as near the eye as possible ; that is just far enough away that the 
sight would not strike the eye when the rifle recoiled. The first 
Lyman sights were all made to be placed on the tang of the rifle. The 
introduction of heavier and longer cartridges, and the consequent 
necessarily greater distance that the bolt had to travel to the rear in 
order to load these long cartridges, made it impossible to use tang 
sights on many modern heavy rifles. The bolt would strike the tang 
sight and turn it down. This led to the designing of what is known 
as the Lyman receiver sight, the sight being secured to the rear of 
the receiver. This method of attachment answers very well indeed 
in most cases, yet it is a fact that the Lyman sight mounted in this 
way cannot be caught as quickly, nor seen in as poor lights as the same 
sight mounted on the tang so as to come nearer to the eye. On one 



THE SIGHTS 



163 



hunting trip in Montana there were four of us in the party. Two 
had their rifles equipped with Lyman receiver sights, and two with 
Lyman tang sights. We tried these sights out in competition under 
all conceivable conditions, and all of us came to the conclusion that 
aim could be caught much more quickly with the tang sight than with 
the receiver sight, and also that the tang sight could be seen clearly 
enough to aim accurately with at least fifteen minutes earlier in the 





2 3 

Fig. 53 
Various forms of Lyman peep sights 
1 — No. 29^2 rear sight with wind gauge for Savage Model 1899 rifles. 
2 — No. 1 rear sight for Remington-U. M. C. No. 14 rifle. 
3 — No. 2A rear sight with detachable cup disc for target shooting. 

morning and fifteen minutes later at evening than could the receiver 
sight. These are important considerations to the hunter and the 
soldier. Nevertheless the receiver sight on the Lyman principle is 
a very satisfactory sight. It is better for a military sight than the 
tang sight because the latter is really too near the eye to be used in 
the prone position without assuming a very cramped attitude. It is 
also stronger and less liable to injury than the tang sight. Figure 54 
shows a number of Lyman receiver sights adapted to rifles which 
have long bolts, which, withdrawing a considerable distance to the 



164 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 




Winchester Remington 

Fig- 54 

Various types of Lyman receiver sights 

rear in the act of loading, make the use of the ordinary Lyman tang 
sight impossible. 

In recent years the Marble Arms and Manufacturing Company have 



THE SIGHTS 



165 



placed on the market a tang sight constructed on the Lyman principle 
which has a flexible base. There is a spring in the joint, and when 
the sight is folded down forward or backward it will, when released, 
immediately spring up again into the firing position. This sight can 
be used on a number of lever-action rifles which have bolts too long 
to permit of attaching the ordinary Lyman tang sight. As the bolt 



Disc No. 2 




Showing exact 
size of the two 
regular discs fur- 
nished with each sight. 



Point blank 
screw may be 
turned by 
inserting in 
slotted stem 
socket. 




Flexible " sight, showing sliding lock button 




Regular base flexible sight on rifle with long firing bolt 

Fig- 55 
The Marble flexible base rear sight. Same principle as the Lyman. A strong 
spring holds it in the firing position, and if struck by anything it bends down 
and springs back into position. It can be bent down against the tang and held 
there by a lock when the rifle is placed in a case. 



166 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

comes to the rear it pushes down the Marble sight, and when the lever 
is closed and the bolt moves forward, the sight at once springs up into 
the firing position. This is a very satisfactory sight on the Win- 
chester Model 1895 rifle, except on the .405 caliber, the recoil in this 
caliber being a little heavy for any tang sight, as the sight is liable 
to strike the eye during the recoil. Fig. 55 shows this sight. 

The older models of the Lyman sight had but one adjustment, a 
screwing up and down of the stem for elevation. The stem has 
graduations on it, and it is screwed up and down by rotating the 
knurled sleeve. This is fairly satisfactory as one can get quite fine 
adjustment by taking care to revolve the sleeve just a little. But 
it is not positive. There is no way of recording the exact elevation. 
On most of these sights moving the rear sight up or down one gradua- 
tion caused a change in point of impact of about 5 inches at 100 
yards. The first form of receiver sights were even more crude. 
There were a number of marks on the side of the sight and a pointer. 
A clamp secured the sight in position. One loosened the clamp and 
slid the sight up or down to the desired mark. The pointer snapped 
in the notch forming the mark, and if this mark was a little out 
of the correct adjustment it was impossible to adjust as desired as 
the sight would always slide a little up or down so that the pointer 
went into the middle of the notch. This form of sight was later 
improved by constructing it with a first-class scale for elevation and 
a knurl-headed screw with which to move the sight up and down for 
obtaining fine adjustment. At the same time the need for lateral 
adjustment was recognized by adding a wind gauge to many models 
of Lyman receiver sights, but it has not been until very recently that 
tang sights were similarly equipped. 

Within the last five years the insistent demand on the part of expert 
rifle-men for sights with absolutely positive adjustment, and with ad- 
justments which could be translated into minutes of angle, has led to 
the placing on the market of two most perfect aperture rear sights 
of the Lyman form. One of these is a receiver sight, the Lyman No. 
48. It is adapted to the United States magazine rifle, Model 1903, 
but by a little filing of the base can be satisfactorily mounted on 
almost all other repeating rifles. Its adjustment for elevation reads 
to minutes of angle. It also has a wind gauge which has " points " 
of the same value as the points on the wind-gauge scale of the regular 
military sight on this Model 1903 rifle, so that the windage tables 
calculated for this rifle can be used with this sight as well as with the 



THE SIGHTS 



167 



regular military sight. That is to say, the points on the scale of the 
wind gauge have a value of 4 inches at 100 yards. One revolution 
of the wind-gauge screw moves the wind gauge one point. A click 
arrangement is placed in this screw, so that it clicks for every quarter 




Fig. 56 
Lyman No. 48 receiver sight for Springfield rifle 





Fig. 57 
Lyman No. 103 rear sight. The most perfect rear sight ever made 



1 68 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

revolution or quarter point. A quarter point is worth just one minute 
of angle, so that we really have an adjustment to minutes of angle for 
both elevation and windage. The elevation screw is also arranged 
to click for every minute of adjustment. These clicks can easily be 
felt but are not audible, so they are not liable to disturb game or give 
one away to the enemy. They are a great advantage, in that the 
adjustments never slip up or down unintentionally, and it is very easy 
to make positive adjustments at night by feel alone. This is a most 
satisfactory sight for either military, long-range target, or hunting 
use. 

The second sight is the Lyman No. 103 tang sight. It also has 
adjustments for both elevation and windage, but in the case of this 




Fig. 58 
Lyman rear sight on the author's sporting Springfield rifle. When the rifle is 
cocked the sight is brought back near the eye, but the act of firing carries the 
sight forward so that there is no danger of its striking the eye during the recoil. 
This is a much better sight for hunting than the receiver sight as it can be seen 
in poorer lights, and aim can be caught much quicker with it than with the 
receiver sight. 

sight these adjustments read to half minutes of angle. The sight was 
constructed in this manner to satisfy the demand of the gallery shoot- 
ers, particularly those competing in the series of gallery competitions 
instituted by the National Rifle Association. Here the demand is for 
a sight which will adjust to just Vs inch at 25 yards, and a half minute 
of angle just does this. This also is a most satisfactory rear sight. 
It is extremely well constructed of excellent material, arrangement 
is made to take up all back lash and lost motion, and the adjustments 
have the click arrangement for half-minute adjustment. It is adapted 
to the Winchester and Stevens Ideal single shot rifles, and to the 
Winchester Model 1894 rifle. With a little alteration it can be made 
to answer for the Winchester Models 1886 and 1892 rifles. For the 
models to which adapted it is a better hunting sight than the No. 48 



THE SIGHTS 169 

receiver sight, of course mainly because the aperture comes nearer 
to the eye. 

The diameter of the normal aperture in Lyman sights is about %2 
inch, and there is usually an additional plate attached to the stem 
which is secured by a hinge and can be folded up into the normal 
aperture and contains a peep hole about ^2 inch in diameter. I have 
never found any use for this small peep, and to prevent it some time 
getting half-way up and down and thus making it impossible to use 
the sight without folding it down, I have always removed it from 
all Lyman sights on my rifles. On special order, Lyman and the 
Marble models of the Lyman sights can be provided with an attach- 
able cup disk having an aperture about .05 inch in diameter. It is 
a decided advantage to have this attachment as it makes the sight 
much better for purely target shooting, and it can always be taken 
off for field work. One can use it for testing ammunition and for 
sighting in the rifle, as the elevations and zeros found with it will 
be exactly the same when it is removed and the true Lyman aperture 
used. 

With all rear sights, both open and peep, it is very desirable that 
the edges towards the eye be clean cut and sharp, so that there can 
be no reflection of light or glimmer from them. They should be 
bevelled on the side farthest from the eye, so as to present a knife 
edge at right angles to the eye and an absolutely perpendicular surface 
towards the eye. This is often neglected even by the best makers. 
If there is trouble with the edges glimmering, a jeweler or expert 
gunsmith can always remedy the trouble in a few minutes by sharp- 
ening the edges. The sights should be always kept well blued to a 
dead black so as not to reflect light. If they become bright through 
wear, it is well to send them back to the maker occasionally for re- 
bluing. Sights are delicate instruments. To be suitable for aiming 
a modern accurate rifle they must be in perfect condition. They 
must be carefully cared for and guarded from all blows and injury. 
Next to the bore of the rifle, the sights are the most important parts 
of the weapon. 



CHAPTER VIII 
SIGHT ADJUSTMENT 

THE sights of a rifle are very seldom correctly adjusted when 
the owner purchases the same. Some factories make no pre- 
text whatever of adjusting their sights. Others adjust them with 
considerable care, but often at a range other than that to which the 
rifleman desires them adjusted. Thus the Winchester Repeating 
Arms Company adjust all the sights on their high-power rifles, and 
on many of their black-powder arms as well, on the 200-yard target. 
That is, when the rear sight is at its lowest elevation the rifle is cor- 
rectly sighted to hit the center of an 8-inch bull's-eye at 200 yards 
when aimed at its lower edge. This is entirely too high a sighting for 
most men, especially for hunting. Take a .30-30 rifle, for example. 
When fired at 200 yards, its trajectory above the line of sight at 100 
yards is 5.79 inches. If this rifle is sighted for 200 yards it will then 
shoot 5.79 inches, plus 2 inches difference between point of impact 
and point of aim on account of being sighted to hit 4 inches high 
at 200 yards, or 7.79 inches above where the top of the front sight 
is held at 100 yards. This is enough to go clear over the top of a deer 
on a perfect body hold at 100 yards. 

Moreover, experience has shown that a sight adjustment that is 
correct for one man will seldom be correct for another, owing to little 
differences in methods of aim, eyesight, manner of holding the rifle, 
etc. Therefore the chances are that a new rifle, besides shooting very 
high, will not be correctly adjusted for its owner, and the first thing 
to do is to adjust the sights. 

We must first consider the shortest distance at which we wish 
to fire, and adjust our sights for that distance. Let us say 50 yards, 
because with sights adjusted for this range we are always ready for 
very close shots which sometimes present themselves, such as the head 
of a grouse at 15 yards. Select therefore a safe range of 50 yards 
on which to fire, and if possible have at hand a table, a chair, a small 
box about 10 inches high, a blanket, a small piece of brass rod several 
inches long, a couple of files — one a small saw file and the other 

170 



SIGHT ADJUSTMENT 171 

a very small, rat-tail jeweler's file — a number of targets about a 
foot square with a black bull's-eye about 3 inches in diameter on the 
same, and rifle and ammunition. Sit down in rear of the table, 
placing thereon the small box with the blanket thickly folded on top. 
Arrange table, chair, box, and rifle so that when sitting in the chair 
one will have his shoulders and chest in about the same upright posi- 
tion relative to rifle and target as when firing offhand. The rifle is to 
be rested on top of the blanket on the box, so that the forearm of the 
rifle rests on the thick, soft blanket about 8 inches ahead of the breech. 
Experiment with the position until it is comfortable, and the rifle, 
shoulders, and head are approximately in the same positions as when 
firing offhand. (See Figs. 155 and 156.) 

Now with the sights on the rifle set as low as they will go, fire a 
single shot at the target, using great care as to aim and trigger pull. 
Note where this shot strikes. (A pair of field glasses are convenient, 
as the bullet hole can then be seen without having to get up and go 
to the target after every shot.) Now adjust the sights according to 



the following rule : "Move the rear sight the way you zvish your shot 
to go, or the front sight in the opposite direction." That is, if your 
shot has gone high, striking above the bull's-eye, you must either 
lower the rear sight, or, if this is impossible, you must file it down 
on top, deepening the notch with the little rat-tail file. 

If the shot has gone low, 3'ou can either raise the rear sight, or 
you can file down the front sight. If the shot has gone to the right 
and it is desired to make the rifle shoot more to the left, then the 
rear sight must be moved to the left. If it is fitted into a slot in the 
barrel, strike the sight a smart blow on the dovetail base, resting the 
short brass rod against the base and striking the rod with the hammer. 
If it becomes necessary to move the rear sight so far to the left as to 
make it unsightly, then the front sight can be moved a little to the 
right and it will not be necessary to set the rear sight over so far. 
It is best to verify the shooting by firing three or four shots before 
starting to adjust the sights. Go slow in moving them, remembering 
that a very slight move of the sight will change the point of impact 
considerably on the target. When you think you have moved the 
sight far enough, shoot again for verification. This is the rough and 
usual method of adjusting the factory sights on a new rifle. It is 
not very satisfactory. In fact it is not at all satisfactory for a trained 
rifle shot. Only the novice or the very poor shot will put up with 
such methods at all. 



i 7 2 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Decidedly the best sights are those having accurate adjustments 
for both elevation and windage, and it is a real pleasure to adjust 
such sights on a rifle, besides a great saving in ammunition. Often 
the saving in ammunition will pay for the sights, because with the 
ordinary factory sights and the crude methods of knocking the sights 
back and forth and filing down one can easily fire 30 or 40 rounds 
before he feels that his sights are correctly adjusted for him. With 
modern adjustable sights, however, the' trained rifleman needs but 
three or four rounds to adjust the sights, after which he not only 
has them adjusted for one range, but he also knows the correct eleva- 
tion for all other ranges. It is only necessary to place these sights 
on the rifle and go to the range where the same equipment should 
be at hand, except that the small brass rod, the hammer, and the 
files will not be necessary. Sit down in the same manner and care- 
fully fire a shot, notice where it has struck, and then fire another for 
verification. If these shots have both struck close together then 
measure the vertical and horizontal distance in inches from them to 
the center of the bull's-eye. This will give you how much your shots 
are striking from the point of aim. All that is then necessary is to 
follow the rule for determining how much a certain change in sight 
adjustment will move the point of impact on the target as given below, 
and adjust the sight according to that rule and the table accompany- 
ing it, and the rifle is sighted in. Of course it is only correctly 
sighted for the individual who did the shooting and for the particular 
ammunition that was used at the time. 

RULE FOR DETERMINING HOW MUCH A CERTAIN CHANGE IN 

SIGHT ADJUSTMENT WILL MOVE THE POINT OF 

IMPACT ON THE TARGET 

First: Measure the distance from the front to the rear sight, and 
divide this into 3600. 

Second: Measure the dimension of the graduation or move that 
you are trying to find the value of on the sight. The accompanying 
table gives the dimensions of the smallest graduations on some of our 
most popular and useful rifle sights. 

Third: Multiply the first result by the second result, and the final 
result will be the distance that the point of impact will be moved at 
100 yards. For 200 yards double this, for 300 yards multiply it by 3, 
for 500 yards multiply by 5, for 50 yards divide by 2, and so on. 



SIGHT ADJUSTMENT 



173 



Example: We have a Winchester Model 1894 rifle equipped with 
a No. 1 Lyman rear sight. We wish to determine how much an 
increase or decrease of one graduation on the elevation stem will 
move the point of impact at 100 yards. First, the distance between 
the front and rear sights is 30 inches. Thirty-six hundred divided 
by 30 equals 120. Second, from the table the dimension of one gradua- 
tion on the stem of this sight is .05-inch. Third, 120 multiplied by 
.05 equals 6 inches. That is, if we are shooting with an elevation 
of 2 points at 100 yards, and we then change our elevation to 3 points 
we will raise our point of impact 6 inches on the target. 

Sometimes, if we know the trajectory of a cartridge, we can deter- 
mine the correct sight setting for various ranges without firing at those 
ranges. Suppose the rifle in the above example is a .30-30 Winchester. 
From the table of trajectories in the Winchester catalogue we find 
that the height of the trajectory at 100 yards when shooting at 200 
yards is 5.79 inches — practically 6 inches. In targeting the rifle at 
100 yards we find that the correct elevation for that range with the 
Lyman No. 1 rear sight is 2 points or graduations on the sight stem. 
Now, from the above calculation it is evident that if we raise the rear 
sight to 3 points the rifle will shoot 6 inches higher at 100 yards — 
that is, it will have just the height of the 200-yard trajectory at 100 
yards — in other words, it will be correctly sighted for 200 yards. 

DIMENSIONS OF THE SMALLEST GRADUATIONS OF RIFLE SIGHTS 



Make and model of sight 



Lyman, rear sight, Nos. 1. iA, 2, and 2 A . 
Lyman, rear sight, Xos. 29V?! and 30V2 

Lyman, rear sight, No. .35 

Lyman, rear sight, No. .36 

Lyman, rear sight, Nos. 41 and 42 

Lyman, rear sight, No. 45 

Lyman, rear sight, Nos. 47 and 52 ....... 

Lyman, rear sight, No. 48 1 

Lyman, rear sight, No. 10.3 - and No. 101. 
Lyman, front sight, Nos. 7, 8, and 18 



Elevation 

graduation, 

inches 


Windage 

graduation, 

inches 


•OS 

.05 


.02 


.02 


.025 


.02 




.02 


.02 


.02 




.008 

.00417 


.02 
•0.32 
.OO417 
•02Q75 



1 The dimensions given are for 1 minute (i.e., V6 revolution of elevation screw) 
of elevation, and l A point of windage (i.e.. V4 revolution, or 1 "click" of wind- 
age screw. One minute in elevation, or Vi point in windage adjustment, gives 
a change of point of impact of 1 inch at 100 yards with this sight on the Model 
190.3 rifle. 

2 Each complete revolution of elevation and windage screws are graduated into 
10 parts, or "clicks,'' which gives a change for each click of Vino-inch, which, 
with a 30-inch sight base equals M> minute of angle, or Vj inch at 100 yards, V* 
inch at 50 yards, and ^ inch at 25 yards, or 1 inch at 200 yards. The No. 101 
rear sight has the same elevation adjustment, but no windage. 



174 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



Make and model of sight 



Elevation 

graduation, 
inches 



Windage 

graduation, 

inches 



Lyman, rear sights, Nos. 2\ and $*>: 
From 1st to 2nd graduation ... 
From 2nd to 3rd graduation ... 
From 3rd to 4th graduation 
From 4th to 5th graduation 
From 51I1 to 6th graduation 
From 6th to 7th graduation 
From 7th to 8th graduation 
From 8th to 9th graduation 

Lyman rear sight No. 2>2> '■ 

From 1st to 2nd graduation .... 
From 2nd to 3rd graduation 
From 3rd to 4th graduation 
From 4th to 5th graduation 
From 5th to 6th graduation 
From 6th to 7th graduation 
From 7th to 8th graduation 
From 8th to 9th graduation 

Marble flexible base rear 



•05 

•05 

•05 

.058 

•079 

.105 

.130 

■145 

.05 

•05 

•05 

•055 

.065 

•073 
.100 
.130 

.0417 



TABLES OF SIGHT CORRECTIONS — UNITED STATES ARMY RIFLES 
ELEVATION CORRECTION TABLE 

Corrections corresponding to a change in elevation of 100 yards. 





Model 1898 Rifle 


Models 1903 & 1917 Rifles 


Range 
(.yards) 


Correction corresponding 

to a change in elevation 

of 100 yards 

(inches) 


Correction corresponding 

to a change in elevation 

of 100 yards 

(inches) 


100 


4-87 
11.38 
19-95 
31.48 
46.04 
63.86 

86.00 
108.87 
136.02 
166.08 


2.88 


200 


5-44 
10.08 
17.28 
24.72 
3+16 
46.68 
62.48 
79-oS 
99-24 


3OO 

400 

500 

600 

700 

800 


900 

1 ,000 





WINDAGE CORRECTION TABLE 
Correction corresponding to one point on the wind-gauge scale. 



Range 

(yards) 



Model 1S98 Rifle 


Model 1903 Rifle 


Correction caused by 


Correction caused b\ 


moving the movable 


moving the movable 


base one point 


base one point 


( inches) 


(.inches) 


6 


4 


12 


8 


18 


12 


24 


16 


30 


20 


36 . 


24 


42 


28 


48 


32 


54 


36 


60 


40 



100 
200 
300 
400 
500 
600 
700 
800 

goo 
1,000 



Note: The rear sight on the Model 1917 Rifle has no wind-gauge. 



SIGHT ADJUSTMENT 



MINUTES OF ANGLE AND ANGLES OF ELEVATION 



175 



A circle is divided into 360 degrees. Each of these degrees is 
further divided into 60 minutes. An angle of 1 minute is an angle 
whose arc is M>i.coo part of the circumference of a circle. With a 
circle having a radius of 100 yards this arc of a I angle will 
measure 1.0472 inches from end to end in a straight line. That 
is to say, 1 minute of angle subtends 1.0472 inches at 100 yards. It 
is very necessary to understand this before proceeding further. 

For convenience' sake, and simplicity, we consider that 1 minute of 
angle subtends 1 inch at 100 yards. It will therefore subtend 2 inches 
at 200 yards, 3 inches at 300 yards, and so on. 




Fig. 59 
Illustrating a minute of angle 

Suppose we have a rifle whose front and rear sights are 30 inches 
apart. This distance between the sights is called the sight radius. 
In 100 yards there are 3600 inches. Thirty-six hundred inches divided 
by 30 inches equals 120. The sight radius is therefore M20 of the range. 
If we move our sight up or down one inch in elevation, we will raise or 
lower the point where our shots are striking on the target 120 times 
this much, or 120 inches. Now suppose on our rear sight we have 
graduations measuring .008 inch. That is, the graduation lines on the 



176 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

elevation scale are .008 inch apart. If we move our rear sight up one 
of these graduations, we will have raised our point of impact 120 times 
.008 inch on the 1 00-yard target. Now 120 multiplied by .008 equals 
.96 inch, — practically, to all intents and purposes, 1 inch. Thus one 
graduation dh this sight (.008) gives us an adjustment or movement 
of practically 1 minute of angle. 

It is necessary to comprehend this in order to understand and appre- 
ciate the many experiments and explanations which folloiv in this work. 

Minutes of angle are used by all ballistic experts and by the Ord- 
nance Departments of all armies in describing and comparing eleva- 
tions and sight readings. It is the unit of measure in discussing the 
sighting of a rifle, in just the same way as the foot and inch is the 
unit of measure of the carpenter. An adjustment on the sight of 1 
minute of angle moves the point of impact 1 inch at 100 yards. That 
is all there is to it. 

For example, let us turn to the data of our own Ordnance Depart- 
ment, and look at the angles of elevation with our service rifle, the 
United States rifle, Model 1903 (New Springfield), using the .30- 
caliber, Model 1906 ammunition. This ammunition has a 150-grain, 
sharp-pointed bullet, and when fired it leaves the muzzle of the rifle 
with an initial velocity of 2700 feet per second. The angles of eleva- 
tion required to make the bullet hit the point of aim at the various 
ranges are as follows: 

Muzzle Zero 600 yards 20.68 minutes 

100 yards 2.40 minutes 700 yards 26.15 minutes 

200 yards 5.18 minutes 800 yards .32.50 minutes 

300 yards 8.26 minutes 900 yards .39.86 minutes 

400 yards 11.83 minutes 1,000 yards 48.3ominutcs 

500 yards 15-90 minutes 

The rear sight on this rifle has graduations on it for every 100 yards, 
from 100 yards to 2800 yards, but the expert military shot will have 
nothing to do with them. These yard graduations, while they are 
just the thing for shooting in war, are not at all fine enough for expert 
military target shooting, so the expert uses a little instrument called 
the micrometer sight adjuster with which he adjusts his sight. Then 
instead of recording the adjustment for a certain range as so many 
yards, he records it as so many minutes, taking the reading from the 
micrometer. The micrometer reads to minutes of angle. This instru- 
ment is very convenient. Suppose the expert is shooting at 600 yards. 
At that range 1 minute of angle subtends 6 inches (remember 1 inch 



SIGHT ADJUSTMENT 177 

per 100 yards). If his shots are hitting 1 foot below the center of 
the bull's-eye all he has to do is to snap the micrometer sight adjuster 
on the sight, raise the elevation 2 minutes, and his rifle then shoots cor- 
rectly into the center of the bull's-eye. Also he has a little table of 
the elevation required at the various ranges at which he shoots, which 
reads as follows : «. 

From 200 to 300 yards raise 3. minutes 

From 300 to 350 yards raise 1.7 minutes 

From 350 to 400 yards raise 2. minutes 

From 400 to 500 yards raise 4. minutes 

From 500 to 600 yards raise 4.8 minutes 

From 600 to 800 yards raise 12. minutes 

From 800 to goo yards raise 7. minutes 

From goo to 1,000 yards raise 8. minutes 

A comparison of this table with that of the angles of elevation of 
the service rifle just given above will show that the two are practically 
the same. Suppose the rifleman decides to change from one make of 
ammunition to another. From some brother rifleman he obtains the 
data for it. This new make requires 2 minutes less elevation than the 
old make, and at once he knows just where to set his sight for every 
range. Suppose he is firing a new rifle at 600 yards, and it is shooting 
well into the center of the bull's-eye, and he then wants to go to the 
800-yard range at which he has never fired this rifle. He merely snaps 
on the micrometer sight adjuster, runs his sight up 12 minutes, and his 
first shot at 800 yards, if he does his part correctly, will be in a hori- 
zontal line passing very nearly through the center of the bull's-eye. 

A rear sight reading to minutes of angle is of immeasurable value 
to any rifleman. A perusal of the pages of this work will convince 
the reader that if he is to know his rifle thoroughly, and to become 
really expert with it, at long range as well as short, he must come to a 
sight reading to minutes of angle. The only sights on the American 
market now which have this convenient reading are the following: 

The Lyman No. 48 rear sight, the elevation scale of which reads to 
minutes of angle ; and the wind gauge of which reads to 4 minutes of 
angle, but has an operating screw which clicks for every minute. This 
sight is made for the United States magazine rifle, Model 19x13 (New 
Springfield), going on the receiver thereof, but a first-rate mechanic 
can easily make slight changes in its base and place it on almost any 
of our rifles. 

The Lyman No. 103 rear tang sight, which reads to half minutes of 



178 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

angle for the convenience of the gallery shot who wishes a sight which 
he can adjust to Vs inch at 25 yards (Vz minute). This is adapted to 
the Winchester and Stevens single shot rifles, and to the Winchester 
Model 1894 rifle, but with slight alteration can be fitted satisfactorily 
on almost any of our rifles which will allow of mounting the old Lyman 
No. 1 rear tang sight. 

The Winchester telescope sight, which when used with a No. 2 rear 
mounting, the front and rear mountings being placed on the barrel J.2 
inches apart, has a reading for both elevation and windage of a half 
minute of angle. 



CHAPTER IX 
TELESCOPE SIGHTS 

INTRODUCTION 

A TELESCOPE sight is a small telescope having cross wires similar 
*■■ *- to a surveyor's transit, and is mounted on the barrel of the rifle 
in such a manner that in aiming in the usual manner one's eye looks 
through the telescope at the object. The object is magnified by the 
telescope, and it is only necessary for the riflemen so to move the rifle 
that the cross-hairs are superimposed on the particular place that he 
wishes his shot to strike. The tube of the telescope is made of steel. 
Two methods of adjustment are in vogue. The commonest is to ele- 
vate and deflect the tube by an adjustable rear mounting in exactly the 
same manner that the rear sight is ordinarily adjusted. The method 
of elevating and deflecting must allow for very close adjustment, as 
the front and rear mountings of the telescope are so much closer to- 
gether than are ordinary front and rear sights. The other method is 
to depress the cross-hairs by means of a screw and dial, which in effect 
causes one to aim higher. As a rule the first method is preferable as 
being more positive and accurate. 

The chief advantages claimed for the telescope sight are : 

(a) It greatly reduces the errors of aim. The error of aim with 
the best iron sights used by marksmen with perfect vision is i inch 
per. ioo yards — that is, for example, 5 inches at 500 yards. The eye 
cannot see to aim closer than this at the various ranges. With the 
telescope sight this error is divided by the magnifying power. For 
example, with a telescope sight magnifying 5 diameters, the error of 
aim at 500 yards would be only about I inch, depending slightly upon 
the fineness of the cross-hairs, and whether any mirage was present in 
the air. 

(b) It allows objects to be seen more distinctly than with the naked 
eye. Also it permits the vision to penetrate into places where it could 
not otherwise, as, for instance, into the edge of a woods, and into dark 
places that appear perfectly black when viewed with the naked eye. 

(c) Low power telescopes with large bright fields permit aim being 

179 



i8o THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

taken in lights when the iron sights cannot be seen at all. With a good 
3-power telescope sight one can see to aim accurately on moonlight 
nights. 

(d) Various forms of telescope sights have certain other advantages 
which will be discussed later, together with the disadvantages. 

A good telescope sight is quite expensive, and it is to a certain extent 
a delicate instrument. The whole object of equipping a rifle with one 
is to attain better accuracy than can be had with iron sights. The tele- 
scope sight will be here considered primarily as an instrument with 
which we wish to attain a greater accuracy of aim by (a) eliminating 
the errors of aim, and (b) making the object aimed at more distinct. 

Anything which does not reduce, or actually increases, the error of 
aim is entirely out of place in connection with a telescope sight. For 
example, a set of mountings which will not adjust, or are capable of 
being read closer than, say, 3 inches at 100 yards, is entirely out of 
place because it introduces an error of as much as 3 inches at times, 
and this is three times larger than the error of the unaided eye, and 
fifteen times larger than the error of a good, 5-power, telescope sight. 

It will be made evident in the course of this chapter that no telescope 
sight has ever been produced that is entirely satisfactory for either 
military use or for big game shooting. Our telescope sights have all 
been constructed with a view to target shooting, and foreign telescope 
sights with a view to sale only, and not for use under service condi- 
tions. The purpose of this chapter will, therefore, be not so much to 
describe existing American models, as to discuss the design, capabili- 
ties, and development of telescope sights suitable alike for target 
shooting, war, and sport. 

For the sake of brevity the telescope sight adapted to the aiming of 
rifles will here be referred to as a " scope," a term in common use 
among American riflemen. 

POWER AND FIELD 

The power of a scope is its ability to magnify objects seen through 
it. A 5-power scope magnifies objects five times or diameters, or 
makes the object appear five times nearer than it actually is. To deter- 
mine the power of a scope, look through it at a brick wall or similar 
object. Keep the other eye open, and so move the scope that the 
image seen through it is alongside the image seen by the naked eye. 
Count the number of bricks seen by the naked eye which line up against 



TELESCOPE SIGHTS 181 

one brick seen through the scope. The result will be the magnifying 
power. 

The field of a scope is the area embraced by the object seen through 
it when the eye is at the correct distance from the eye-piece. It is 
usually designated by the diameter at a certain range. To determine 
the diameter of the field, choose a level piece of ground. Drive a stake 
A at ioo yards from the scope. Have the scope in a steady rest, and 
so directed that the stake can just be seen at the left edge of the field 
of view, on line with a horizontal line passing through the center of 
the field. Have an assistant drive a second stake B, also ioo yards 
from the scope, to the right of stake A so that it can just be seen at 
the right edge of the field of view. The distance from A to B will be 
the diameter of the field at ioo yards. Twice this will be the diameter 
at 200 yards, and so on. 

It is a law of optics that, other things being equal, the higher the 
power of the telescope the smaller the field of view. 

A high-power scope is best for experimental work and rest shooting, 
as the error of aim is less. High power and fine cross-hairs are re- 
quired for absolute alignment, particularly at ranges of 200 yards and 
over. High-power scopes are usually classified as those magnifying 
over 6 diameters. Scopes of over 20 diameters are seldom seen. 
High-power scopes have small, dark fields, and are unsuitable for either 
military or hunting use. 

Low-power scopes, from 2 to 6 diameters, have brilliant and large 
fields. Objects can be seen distinctly in poor lights. The scope and 
rifle can be held steadily enough offhand so that the object aimed at 
remains in the field all the time, and is not continually bobbing in and 
out of view as is the case with a high-power scope held offhand. Low 
powers are best for military use, ordinary target shooting, and hunting. 
There is a little error of aim, particularly if the cross-hairs are very 
coarse, but the error is always much less than with iron sights. 

A scope having a large object lens, and large eye lens in propor- 
tion to the distance between the lenses, will have a larger and brighter 
field than a similar scope of the same power but relatively smaller 
lenses. 

The field of a very high-power scope appears dark; that is, the 
object viewed through it appears in a darker light than it does when 
viewed with the. naked eye. On dark days such a glass is useless 
except against a light background, as, for example, a white target. 



i82 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

For making the object aimed at appear more distinctly, particularly in 
poor lights, a scope of low power should always be chosen. 

The diameter of the field has considerable to do with the efficiency 
of the glass for the ordinary uses to which a rifleman will put it. 
With a glass having a large field the rifleman throws the rifle to his 
shoulder in such a manner that it points as closely as possible at the 
object he desires to hit. The object is then surely seen in some part 
of the field, and it is only necessary so to move the rifle that the 
cross-hairs superimpose their intersection on the point one desires the 
shot to strike. With a small field the rifleman may not be able so 
accurately to throw his rifle to his shoulder that the object will be in- 
cluded in the field of view, but after placing the rifle at his shoulder 
he may have to swing the rifle up or down, or to one side or another, 
until he finds the object in the field. This takes time and makes the 
catching of the aim slow. Moreover, if the field is very small the 
slight tremors of the rifle and scope, as the rifleman endeavors to 
hold them steady, may be sufficient to cause the object to be con- 
stantly appearing and disappearing in the field. Twenty years' ex- 
perience with a large number and variety of scopes has shown that a 
field of view of at least 20 feet in diameter at 100 yards is essential 
if the object is surely to be seen in the field when the rifle is thrown 
to the shoulder by a skilled rifleman. This is a slightly larger field 
than obtains with any scopes at present made in the United States. 

RELIEF 

The relief of a scope is the distance at which the eye must be held 
in rear of the eye-piece in order to obtain the clearest view of the 
field and its largest diameter. It is greater with scopes than with other 
forms of telescopes, as it is necessary that the eye be held at some 
little distance from the eye-piece so that the eye-piece will not strike 
the eye when the rifle recoils. Also there is a certain latitude to it 
so that, for example, the eye may be held at any point from 1% to 3 
inches from the eye-piece and still see the field at its best. This form 
of relief we will call the " longitudinal relief." A scope for use on 
a rifle having heavy recoil should have a long longitudinal relief so 
that the eye will not be endangered. Considerable latitude in the 
longitudinal relief is always desirable as the eye then does not have to 
be so accurately placed as to distance from the eye-piece in order to 
embrace the full field. Latitude thus makes for a quicker catching 
of the aim and for easier adaptability to the various firing positions. 



TELESCOPE SIGHTS 183 

The eye, for example, will be held much closer to the eye-piece naturally 
in the prone position than it is in the standing position. 

There is also another form of relief which we will call the " lateral 
relief," that is, the distance which one may move his eye to one side 
or the other, or high and low, and still see the whole field of view. 
With iron sights there is no lateral relief at all, and one must get 
his eye exactly in the line of sight in order accurately to align the 
front and rear sights. With a telescope there is a certain latitude 
in this respect, and one may move his eye a little in any lateral direc- 
tion and still see the whole field of view without disturbing the align- 
ment of the cross-hairs. The more latitude there is to this lateral 
relief the quicker can the aim be caught, as the eye does not have to 
come exactly into the line of sight to obtain an accurate aim. 



! > 

Fig. 60 
R — Longitudinal relief, 2 inches. 
A-A — Latitude of longitudinal relief, 2 inches. 
B-B — Lateral relief, %■ inch. 

In Fig. 60 the oval in rear of the eye-piece illustrates the relief 
of the scope. The drawing shows a longitudinal relief of 2 inches, 
and a lateral relief of M inch, A-A being the longitudinal relief, and 
B-B the lateral relief. The eye can be placed anywhere within the 
oval and still see the entire field of view, and accurate aim be taken. 
The optical principle is such that the slight shifting of the eye from 
side to side through the lateral relief does not alter the line of aim, 
provided the cross-hairs of the telescope are in proper focus. That 
the cross-hairs are in proper focus can always be told by fastening 
the scope in a heavy vise. See first that the cross-hairs appear dis- 
tinctly, then move the head from side to side through the lateral relief, 
and notice whether the cross-hairs move at all in their alignment on 
an object in front of the scope. If they do not move the focus is 
correct. A scope is absolutely useless unless the cross-hairs are in 
focus. Some scopes have the cross-hairs fixed immovable and in 
focus all the time. Others have a screw which allows them to be 
focused. 

It will be obvious that with a relief, as illustrated in Fig. 60, aim 



1 84 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

can be caught very quickly as the eye does not have to come to exactly 
one place to get perfect alignment. In fact, with such a relief, and 
a large field, aim can be caught very much quicker than with any 
form of iron sights, provided that the scope is so mounted on the 
rifle that the comb of the stock helps to lead the eye into the line of 
sight by offering a guide or measure as to about where to place the 
head to get the eye into the line of sight. As a rule the scopes manu- 
factured in the United States have a rather small longitudinal relief, 
and entirely too small lateral relief. They are thus suitable only 
for slow target use and experimental work, such as accuracy testing. 

LENSES 

The field of view should be well defined and free from color 
fringes. This demands good achromatic lenses. This matter is always 
attended to by the makers with all but the very cheapest scopes, so that 
it needs no further attention other than to caution the purchaser 
against cheap scopes with ordinary lenses which will prove absolutely 
unsatisfactory, and probably introduce eye strain. The mounting of 
the lenses in the tube is of the greatest importance. Every lens has 
its optical center, and this may or may not correspond to, and be 
in alignment with, the axis of the tube. In fact, it is a very expen- 
sive matter to make a scope where these two centers coincide. Nor is 
it necessary for the ordinary uses to which a scope is usually put. 
If a telescope in which the optical centers of the lenses and the axis 
of the tube do not coincide be revolved on the axis of the tube, the 
cross-hairs, instead of remaining aligned on one spot on the target 
all the while, will pass in a circle over the field of the target. How- 
ever, in aiming with such a scope the horizontal cross-hair assists 
one in holding the scope level, and prevents any tendency to rotate 
or cant, and thus the line of aim remains constant. But if a lens 
should start to revolve in its mounting in the tube the line of sight 
would be thrown off with it, and we would have a constantly changing 
line of sight as the lens revolved. An experience with a German 
scope several years ago will suffice to illustrate this point. The tube 
of this scope was divided into two portions. The rear portion re- 
volved, screwing in and out for focus. The two portions were held 
fast by a set screw. No single set screw can be relied upon to hold 
with a high-power rifle of heavy recoil. In firing this scope on a 
high-power rifle it was noticed that the rifle was continually shooting 
high and to the right. In ten consecutive shots at 200 yards the point 



TELESCOPE SIGHTS 185 

of impact, starting at the center of the bull's-eye, moved two feet 
during the string towards 10 o'clock. Investigation proved that the 
rear portion of the tube was revolving during recoil, the set screw 
not holding it. This, of course, caused the rotation of the eye-piece, 
and as a consequence the line of sight went sailing up towards 10 
o'clock. The glass was properly focused and the two portions then 
soldered up, and no further difficulty was experienced for a while, 
until finally the same thing occurred again, and after considerable 
investigation it was found that one of the lenses had become loose 
in its seat, being simply crimped therein by little brass flanges bent 
down over the edges of the lens, and this glass was revolving under 
the vibrations of recoil and shifting the line of sight a little with 



Fig. 61 
A Springfield sporting rifle with German telescope sight attached. A fine ap- 
pearing combination to the novice, but absolutely useless for practical purposes 

almost every shot. These faults are found in almost all German 
scopes, and make them absolutely unsatisfactory, although their optical 
properties are superb and often entice riflemen into purchasing them. 
The lenses should all be mounted in barrels which are secured 
in the tube against rotating by means of a rib on the inside of the 
tube, and a slot cut in the barrel so that the barrel cannot rotate 
in the tube. Then there should be a similar rib in each barrel and 
a cut in the edge of the lens fitting over this rib. Then the lenses 
cannot rotate. Some arrangement must also be made to prevent the 
caps which secure the lenses in the barrels from coming unscrewed 
and making the lenses loose in their seats. It must be remembered 
that with the peculiar recoil of the high-power rifle single screws will 
always, sooner or later, become loose. 

MOUNTINGS 

The mountings of the scope are by no means the least important 
feature in connection with this instrument. It cannot be impressed 



1 86 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

too strongly upon riflemen who have had no experience with scopes 
that the mountings must permit of very close and positive adjust- 
ment for both elevation and windage, and must have an arrange- 
ment for giving a clear reading of the various adjustments. The 
smallest movement or distance that the unaided eye can well measure 
or appreciate is just about .01 inch. Suppose we have Lyman sights 
on our rifle, the sights being 28 inches apart. With the eye alone we 
can adjust this sight as close as .01 inch. A change in adjustment 
of .01 inch on such sights means a change in the point of impact 
at 100 yards of 1.286 inch. This is plenty close enough in this case. 
But suppose we have a scope with a short tube (all modern scopes 
have short tubes) and the distance between the front and rear mount- 
ings is only 7.2 inches. Then the smallest adjustment we can see to 
make on this mounting, that is .01 inch, will cause a change in point 
of impact of 5 inches at 100 yards. In other words, with the ordinary 
crude sliding mountings often sold for telescope sights we cannot 
adjust our sights to shoot closer than five inches at 100 yards, and 
moreover we can at no time be sure that our rifle is going to shoot 
correctly at any given object closer than 5 inches. This, of course, 
will be absolutely unsatisfactory. 

The only satisfactory method of adjustment of a scope mounting 
is by means of micrometer screws having small but positive readings. 
One who has never used a micrometer very often has the idea that 
such adjustments are weak and complicated. The fact is they are 
just the contrary, being nothing more than large, strong screws with 
the scales engraved on them. A mounting with micrometer adjust- 
ments is the simplest and strongest of all kinds. With micrometer 
adjustments we can easily arrange our mountings so that both the 
elevation and windage adjustments can be positively moved and read 
to a change in point of impact of half an inch at 100 yards, or in other 
words half a minute of angle. 

A scope has two mountings, front and rear, corresponding to the 
front and rear sights. The front mounting has no adjustment, but 
holds the scope so that it can be moved slightly at the rear end in any 
direction. The rear mount should have adjustments for both eleva- 
tion and windage. The only scope mountings made in the United 
States, or in fact in any country, which are at all satisfactory, are 
those made by the Winchester Repeating Arms Company — the regular 
front mounting and the No. 2 rear mounting. The front mount con- 
sists of a ring around the tube of the scope, and is secured to the 



TELESCOPE SIGHTS 187 

barrel by means of a dovetail base and a screw. The tube bears 
on two convex surfaces placed 120 degrees apart inside the ring. 
In the bottom of the inside of the ring, and placed at 120 degrees 
from each of these convex surfaces, is a bevel-nosed plunger which 
engages in a long groove on the under side of the tube, and keeps 
the tube from rotating but allows it to move longitudinally. This 
device insures the axis of the tube remaining constant, once it is 
adjusted. 




Fig. 62 
Springfield rifle remodelled by A. O. Neidner, and fitted with Winchester tele- 
scope sight and Winchester mountings 

The shape of the rear mount is oval instead of circular, as in the 
case of the front mount, and is such as to allow ample play to the 
tube for elevation and windage adjustments for different ranges. 
Two springs, one exerting pressure vertically and the other horizon- 
tally, hold the tube iii contact with the elevation and windage screws. 
The elevation and windage are set by micrometer screws reading to 
.001 inch. The division markings on the adjusting screws and mounts 
are enameled in red so as to make it easy to read them quickly and 
accurately. When the mountings are placed 7.2 inches apart one 
point of adjustment on either of the adjusting screws is equivalent 
to a change in point of impact at 100 yards of half an inch. 

Small longitudinal dovetail bases are screwed to the barrel of the 
rifle the proper distance apart, and the bases of the mountings slip 
over these, being secured from slipping by thumb screws in the base 
of the mount. By loosening the thumb screws the mountings can 
be removed from the bases, thus removing the scope from the rifle, 
leaving only the small dovetail bases screwed to the barrel. Refer- 
ence to the illustrations of the Winchester scope and mountings will 
make this description clear. 

The Winchester mountings as described are very satisfactory, in fact 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 







Fig. 63 
Views of Neidner .22-caliber Springfield magazine rifle, showing action and 
details of bolt. In this rifle the cartridge is not loaded into a holder, but is 
loaded direct from a .22-caliber magazine into a barrel regularly chambered for 
the .22-long rifle cartridge. The telescope sight is attached to the rifle with 
Winchester mountings and Mann taper dovetail bases. 

almost ideal, in all respects save one. The method of attachment to 
the barrel is not altogether satisfactory, although in most cases it 
works very well. It is very necessary that some arrangement be 
had whereby the scope can readily be removed from the rifle, but this 






TELESCOPE SIGHTS 189 

arrangement should be so positive and accurate that when the scope 
is removed it can be put back again and still be in absolutely accurate 
adjustment. Otherwise it will be necessary to sight the rifle in every 
time the scope is removed and replaced. Also the method of attach- 
ment should be absolutely rigid so as to allow no movement during 
firing, or from shot to shot. The Winchester method of attachment 
does not quite accomplish this, although it comes very near to it. 
Sometimes there will creep into the mounting -an error of as much 
as two minutes of angle due to the lack of rigidness in this method 
of attachment. Either the retaining thumb screws become loose dur- 
ing firing, or the screws are sometimes screwed up tighter than at 
other times, thus causing a slight variation of the setting of the mount- 
ing on the base. Also the bases themselves, being secured to the 
barrel by* screws alone, sometimes work loose under sharp recoil. 
Little trouble will be experienced, however, until we place the scope 
on a rifle of very sharp recoil, like the .30-caliber Model 1906. 

A few years ago the late Dr. F. W. Mann invented a method of 
securing the mountings to the barrel. The mountings are so ar- 
ranged as to fit on taper dovetails securely fastened to the barrel, by a 
driving fit which gets tighter instead of looser from recoil. The dove- 
tail base is not only screwed, but also soldered on to the barrel so 
that it cannot possibly become loose. The base is dovetail in shape, 
and also tapers slightly from front to rear, the taper on both sides 
being at an equal angle with the axis of the bore. The under side of 
the mounting is cut out to fit over this base, and fits on it from the rear, 
the mounting sliding over the base, and wedging up on the taper 
to a positive fit. This gives fit which is absolutely secure, must come 
back to exactly the same place each time the mountings are removed 
and replaced, and which wedges tighter the more the recoil. Figs. 
63 and 64 show the Mann taper dovetail base. A number of Win- 
chester scope mountings have been altered by Mr. A. O. Neidner, the 
skilled riflemaker, so as to be secured to the barrel by means of the 
Mann taper dovetail bases, and these have proved perfect for the 
purpose, there being no error at all. In taking these mountings off 
the bases to remove the scope from the rifle it is necessary to drive 
them off with a piece of hard wood, using light, sharp blows, and 
to drive them on in the same manner. This may seem rather crude, but 
experience has shown that it is the only really satisfactory way if 
accuracy and absolutely positive results are to be secured. Before 
obtaining these taper dovetail mountings there was always an error 



190 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



in point of impact from day to day in my experimental work, some- 
times amounting to as much as 2 minutes of angle, which I could 
not account for. With these mountings this error has entirely dis- 
appeared. For example, one day I would shoot a rifle in test at 100 
yards and obtain a certain group with it, located at a certain point 
on the target. The next day I would make a similar test and would 
obtain another group about the same size as the first group, but per- 
haps as much as 2 inches away from the location of the first group, 
aim, sight adjustment, ammunition, everything exactly the same. 
This error was due to the error of the scope mounting, and the adoption 
of the Mann taper dovetail bases entirely removed this error. 



o 




j TAPM BOVI-TMi I 



Fig. 64 
The Mann taper dovetail method of attaching the telescope sight mounting to 

the barrel 

To test the mountings of a scope, the rifle should be firmly fixed 
in a very heavy vise where it will be absolutely immovable, and in 
such a manner that it can be aimed at a target at some distance off 
while thus immovably held. The target should preferably be at an even 
number of hundred yards. With the scope on the rifle, aim it at a 
spot on the target and screw the rifle up tight in the vise. Then 
remove the scope from the rifle without removing the rifle from 
the vise, place the scope back again on the rifle, and look through 
it at the target, noting whether the point of aim has moved in the 
slightest. If, after a half a dozen trials there has been no change in 
the point of aim on the target, the method of mounting the scope may 
be taken as positive and accurate. Place a mark on the target 10 
inches above, and another 10 inches to the right of, the first aiming 
point. With the scope adjusted for the first aiming point, give the 
rear mounting additional elevation to move the point of impact up 



TELESCOPE SIGHTS 191 

10 inches. Look through the scope and see if it is now aimed at the 
upper mark. If so, the elevation adjustment is positive and accurate. 
Bring it back to aim at the original point, and adjust the mount to 
move the point of impact 10 inches to the right, look through the 
scope and see if it is now aimed at the right-hand mark, to prove 
the windage adjustment. With the scope aimed at the mark, move 
the eye from side to side a little through the lateral relief of the 
glass and see if the cross-hairs move on the target. If they do not, 
the cross-hairs are in focus and there is nothing the matter with 
the scope which would interfere with the accuracy. If they do move, 
then the cross-hairs should be carefully focused, moving them back 
and forth until they are perfectly distinct and yet moving the eye 
from side to side does not change the aim on the target. It is always 
well to repeat these tests with a scope every few months to see that 
everything is working all right. You are then sure that any error 
that may come up in the course of shooting is not an error of the 
aiming device. 

THE WINCHESTER STYLE A, 5~POWER TELESCOPE SIGHT 

This is the most modern and satisfactory scope manufactured in 
the United States. In fact it is the only one which the writer has 
found that is really satisfactory for use on a high-power rifle. 
Although by no means ideal it is a very good glass, and the best that 
can be obtained at the present time. The lenses are % inch in diameter, 
and the tube 15% inches long. The longitudinal relief is 2 inches and 
the latitude of longitudinal relief about 2 inches. The lateral relief 
is only about Vk inch, which is rather small, and trouble is at times 
had in holding the eye steady enough to keep the full field in view. 
This trouble is seldom experienced in target shooting but is at times 
rather aggravating in hunting. The eye-piece is of the terrestrial 
type, and is adjusted for focus by simply loosening the locking sleeve 
and turning the eye-piece until the proper focus is obtained, and then 
screwing up the locking sleeve. When the eye-piece is adjusted to 
suit the user's sight, no further change should be made in it, focal 
adjustment for different ranges being obtained by adjusting the ob- 
jective lens. 

The micrometer adjustment of the objective lens provides a simple 
and accurate means for positive and minute relative adjustment of 
the lenses and cross-hairs required for accurate focusing of the image 
at the cross-hairs for various ranges. In using this micrometer focus 



192 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 






Micrometer No. 2 rear mount 

adjustment of 
objective lens 

Fig. 65 
Winchester type A, 5-power telescope sight and mountings 

adjustment always start at zero and screw the sleeve towards the 
rear. The following table shows the number of turns and divisions 
required to give perfect focus at the various ranges. 



Range 


Turns 


Divisions 


Range 


Turns 


Divisions 


50 feet 

75 feet 

100 feet 


O 
O 

I 




8 

I*/2 


50 yards 
100 yards 
200 yards 


I 

I 
2 


5% 
9% 

lV 2 



From 200 yards up, the focus of the objective lens is universal, 
and therefore requires no change in adjustment. For ordinary pur- 
poses the objective may be set in focus for 50 yards, and will answer 
very well for all distances from 25 yards up, but for constant use at 
any one range the objective lens should be carefully focused to avoid 
eye strain. In turning the micrometer screw to focus the objective 
lens, the lens itself does not turn but slides in the tube, being held 
from turning by a rib. 

The cross-hairs are held in a reticule, and as opinions differ as to 
the best form of cross-hairs or other sighting points, five different 
styles of reticules are furnished; namely, single and double cross- 
hairs, triangle, aperture, and post. - The single cross-hairs are almost 
always to be preferred, except only for military target shooting at 
bull's-eye targets, when the post is preferable, being shaped very 



TELESCOPE SIGHTS 193 

similar to the front sight on the United States rifle, Model 1903, and 
aim being taken in the same manner, getting the post so superimposed 
on the image that the top of the post appears just below the bull's-eye. 
These reticules are interchangeable, and one can be substituted for 
another without difficulty (see below). 

The mountings for the Winchester scope have already been 
described. The tube glides through the mountings when the rifle re- 
coils and has to be drawn back to a stop after each shot. This sliding 
of the scope is almost absolutely necessary. If it were rigidly fixed 
in the mountings it would receive too much of the force of recoil 
and would quickly become damaged. Also the tube sliding forward 
with recoil serves to carry the eye-piece away from the eye, so that 
there is no danger of the eye-piece striking the eye. If it were not 
for this sliding feature it would be necessary to have at least 5 inches 
longitudinal relief to a glass intended for use on a high-power rifle 
of heavy recoil, and this would materially reduce the size of field. 
The diameter of the field of this scope at 100 yards is 17 feet. 

DIRECTIONS FOR REMOVING LENSES FROM WINCHESTER TELESCOPE 

SIGHTS 

To secure the most satisfactory results from an instrument of this 
kind, it should be taken apart only when absolutely necessary. 

Front or objective lens. Remove the adjusting sleeve cap. Un- 
screw the adjusting sleeve about Vi of an inch. Then return it to its 
original position. This leaves the rim of the lens cell exposed so that 
it crarf'tie pulled out. It is not advisable to remove the lenses from 
their seats in the cells, as they are liable to injury from improper 
seating. 

Reticule (cross-hairs, etc.). Loosen the reticule retaining ring 
screw, situated on the left side of the tube near the rear end, by turn- 
ing it inward as far as it will go, using the screw-driver furnished. 
The reticule holder may then be shaken out rearward by holding the 
tube vertically. If it sticks, rap the end of the tube gently on a smooth 
wood surface. After removing the reticule holder from the tube, 
the reticule disc, carrying the cross-hairs, or other form of reticule, may 
be removed through the slit provided for it. In replacing the reticule 
in its holder make sure the side on which the wires are soldered is 
toward the rear and the projection on the side of the disc is seated in 
its slot, so that when reassembled the reticule will stand upright. 

Middle or inverter lens (style A or B, 5-power). Loosen the middle 



194 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

lens cell retaining ring screw, situated on the left side of the tube 
near the middle, by turning it inward as far as it will go. Then reach 
into the rear end of the tube with the finger or any hooked instrument 
and, engaging the notched end or the rear retaining rod, withdraw it 
with the rear diaphragm and middle lens cell attached. Replace in 
reverse order, making sure that when the retaining screw is tightened 
the center of its head is exactly in line with the line scratched across 
the slot in the tube. 

The Winchester Style A, 5-power telescope sight is excellent for 
target shooting, particularly for Schuetzen rifles. I have had excellent 
results with it on a .30-40 Winchester single shot rifle. In fact I have 
used one of these glasses for over ten years, and have had it mounted 
at one time or another on over 20 rifles. It has always given perfect 
satisfaction except for the little trouble with the method of mounting 
on the barrel, as already noted, and the cross-hairs are so thick that 
it is difficult at times to get an absolutely accurate aim. The cross- 
hairs should be made thinner. This glass has also been used by a 
number of our most skilled military rifle shots for long range shoot- 
ing on the United States magazine rifle, Model 1903, with almost per- 
fect results. The rifle can be used only as a single loader, and the 
scope must be pushed forward a little each time the bolt is pulled up 
so as to escape the bolt handle. On the 1903 rifle the mountings 
should be placed only 6 inches apart in order to give the rear mounting 
sufficient scope to permit of its adjustment to the extreme range of 
1200 yards. When the mountings are placed 6 inches apart, one point 
adjustment on either elevation or windage screws moves the point 
of impact .6 inch for every hundred yards of range. On other rifles 
the mountings should be placed 7.2 inches apart, then one point of 
elevation or windage is equivalent to a change of point of impact of 
half an inch for every hundred yards of range. 

It is always preferable to have the telescope mounted on the top 
of the barrel and as low down as possible, so that the eye-piece will 
come as nearly as possible to the same point that the eye-piece of a 
tang sight, like the Lyman, would come. Then one can take advan- 
tage of the comb of the stock quickly to direct the eye into the line 
of sight, and can also press the cheek against the side of the stock, as 
he should, to hold the eye steadily in the line of sight. If the scope 
be mounted on one side of the barrel in order to be able also to use 
the iron sights at the same time, or if compelled to do so because the 
rifle ejects its fired shells out of the top of the receiver, one must 



TELESCOPE SIGHTS 195 

forego all this advantage of having the comb to direct the eye into 
the line of sight, and the cheek rest on the side of the stock. The eye 
bobs around in the line of sight, and it is very difficult to hold 
steadily. If necessary to mount the scope very high above the barrel, 
a cheek pad, made for use on shotguns, can be laced to the stock, thus 
raising the comb of the stock. For experimental firing the scope 
should always be mounted on top of the barrel, centrally over the 
axis of the bore. In fact I would advise that a telescope sight be 
not used on rifles that do not permit of its being so mounted, because 
the results are bound to be unsatisfactory, it being impossible to hold 
the rifle with any degree of steadiness when looking through the 
scope, except when shooting from a rest. 

When it comes to a scope for all around use, target shooting, big 
game shooting, and military work, the Winchester scopes have many 
faults which makes them really unsuitable. Besides those already 
noted, the field is too small, the lateral relief is too small. The power 
should be less, about 3 power, and the lenses larger to permit a much 
larger and brighter field of view. The lenses should be more securely 
fastened in their cells against possible rotation. Greater longitudinal 
relief would be desirable. All these points, of course, were not fully 
appreciated when the Winchester scope was placed on the market. 

THE IDEAL TELESCOPE SIGHT 

Throughout this chapter the various features of the scope have 
been discussed, the faults and the desirable features pointed out. 
If all these features were combined at their best in one glass we would 
have the ideal telescope sight. Thus our glass would be short and 
of rather larger diameter than the glasses now seen. The tube would 
be very strong so as to stand the hard knocks of real service. The 
lenses would be strongly secured in the tube against coming loose and 
also against rotating. The magnifying power should be about 3 
diameters. The diameter of the field at 100 yards should be at least 
30 feet. The longitudinal relief should be at least 3^ inches, with a 
latitude of at least 3 inches. The lateral relief should be at least 
Vi inch. The field should be very bright, and without color fringe. 
Focus for clearness of vision and for distance should be arranged for 
exactly as in the Winchester scope. The mountings should be similar 
to the Winchester No. 2, and should be secured to the barrel by means 
of the Mann taper dovetail bases. 

With such a scope the rifleman throws the rifle to his shoulder and 



196 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

instantly catches the aim. As his eye does not have to get exactly 
in the line of sight, as is the case with iron sights, he gets his aim 
much quicker with the ideal scope. The object is seen clearly magni- 
fied, and even brighter than when viewed with the naked eye. It is 
not necessary to get two sights into line, but only to move one sight. 
the cross-hairs, so as to have them superimpose on the magnified image. 
When the target is clearly seen it is much easier to get a quick aim 
at it than when it is indistinct. Every military rifleman knows how 
much quicker he can sight on a well-lighted bull's-eye target than he 
can on a drab-colored silhouette. As the target is magnified, and the 
cross-hairs are thin, much more accurate aim can be taken than with 
coarse iron sights. In fact the ideal scope is a very much better 
aiming instrument than any other form of sight under all conditions. 
Its only disadvantage is that it is a delicate instrument, set up on top 
of the rifle where it is liable to damage by a fall, or by catching in 
limbs of trees, etc. This liability to damage can hardly be eliminated 
except by placing a heavy metal cover over the instrument, which 
would greatly increase the weight of the rifle. 

TARGETS FOR TELESCOPE SIGHTED RIFLES 

The conventional bull's-eye target is not very satisfactory for use 
with the scope. It is difficult to aim accurately at the center of the 
large magnified black bull's-eye as the black cross-hairs blend with the 
black of the bull and are not clearly defined. Particularly if the 
shooting is to be of an experimental character, or if it is to be a test 
of rifle or ammunition, it is much better to use a specially prepared 
target consisting of a bull's-eye with a large white center. For this 
use, with the coarse cross-hairs of the Winchester type A, 5-power 
scope, I have standardized on a 100-yard target haying a 6-inch 
black bull's-eye with a 4-inch white bull inside it. This is easiest 
made with the materials at hand anywhere by using a compass, and 
drawing two circles on the paper target, one circle 4 inches in diameter, 
and the other 6 inches in diameter. Then take a small water-color 
paint brush, and with ink paint the space between the two lines, 
making a ring an inch in diameter. For other ranges use circles 
proportionately larger or smaller. The cross-hairs are then made to 
intersect on the white bull's-eye inside the black circle, and the eye 
can do this with almost absolute accuracy. 



CHAPTER X 

BULLETS 

THE first bullets were round and made of pure lead. They were 
pounded down the bore of the muzzle loader by the ramrod, 
and it was a difficult task to get them seated all the way down on the 
powder, particularly when the bore was a little dirty from firing. 
It did not take the American frontiersman long to get disgusted with 
this method that had prevailed in Europe up to about 1700. In 
Europe it was not often that one fired many shots a day, but in 
America game was very plentiful, and the rifleman had to be con- 
stantly loading his rifle. As a consequence some one, probably one 
of the Lancaster riflemakers, invented the greased patch. The bullet 
was made a little smaller than usual. A round patch about the size 
of a silver dollar, made of either linen or thin buckskin, and greased 
with deer tallow, was laid over the muzzle of the rifle, and the bullet 
pressed down on top of it with the thumb. The ramrod then seated 
this patched bullet easier, and a few wangs with the ramrod when it 
was fully seated on the powder sufficed to upset the soft lead ball so 
that it filled the grooves perfectly. The patch of course left the bullet 
at the muzzle. 

This form of bullet and method of loading sufficed very well until 
about 1820, when riflemen began to press forward into the open prairies 
of our Central States. Here long shots were the rule, and it was 
quickly found that the round ball was a very poor long-range 
missile. It lost its velocity very quickly, and it lacked in penetration 
for the larger game found in the West. About this time the long 
conical bullet was invented abroad, and riflemakers in this country 
were not slow to adopt it, particularly for Western use, as it so greatly 
increased the range and killing power of the rifle. The conical bullets 
for the early muzzle loaders were all made small so that they could 
be driven home easily, they had grooves for lubricant like the present 
lead bullet, and the base had a hollow cavity in it so that the gases 
of the burning powder would cause the base of the bullet to expand 
and fit the rifling to the bottom of the grooves. Sometimes the hollow 

197 



198 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



base contained a cone-shaped plug to insure positive expansion of the 
bullet. These bullets continued in use up to the introduction of the 
breech loader, and we even see this type in use today in some revolver 
cartridges. 



675213 




476 GRS. 



25720 



321232 



375248 




319247 





no GRS. 



r 




255 CRS. 



457124 



•457125 



375262 





45-10-405 



* 




500 Ges. 



25719 




IO 



7 



31949 




II 



i 

Fig. 66 
Round bullet as used in the first muzzle loaders. 

Conical muzzle loading bullet with cavity in base to insure expansion on fir- 
ing, and filling the bore gas tight, 
to 6. Lead alloy bullets for black powder rifles. Can also be used with low 
pressure smokeless powder. 
An express bullet with hollow point to insure its expanding on striking game. 
8 and 9. The 405 and 500 grain bullets for the .45 caliber U. S. Springfield rifle. 
10 and 11. Sharp point bullets for shooting small game without mangling. 



With the introduction of the breech loader came the full-sized 
bullet made of lead alloyed with tin to harden it slightly, as we see it 
today. There has been practically no change in the lead bullet for 
the breech loader since it was designed shortly after the Civil War. 
The only improvement worthy of mention is that introduced with some 



BULLETS 



199 



special loads, and for which Mr. H. M. Pope and Dr. W. G. Hudson 
deserve credit. The forward portion of the body of the bullet was 
made bore diameter so that it would ride on top of the lands when 
the cartridge was loaded, and thus serve to straighten the bullet 
up in the chamber and insure its axis being in line with the axis of 
the bore before firing. The rear portion of the body was then made 
full groove diameter so as to fit to the bottom of the grooves and pre- 
vent the escape of gas past the bullet. These bullets showed quite a 
little superiority as regards accuracy over the old type with straight 
cylindrical body. 



319273 




375272 




308206 



308 GRS. 




257312 



308211 




308291 



3082M 



808334 



875298 




$ 



IO 



Fig. 67 
1 and 2. The Hudson-Ideal, two-cylinder bullets for target shooting. 

3. The Kephart bullet, first successful lead bullet to be used in high power 

rifles. 

4. A popular lead alloy bullet for short range in .30-caliber rifles. 

5 to 9. Ideal gas-check bullets for medium high velocity with smokeless powder. 
IO. Soft-point, jacketed bullet for .32 Winchester special rifle. 



200 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

The points of all these lead bullets were made either flat, rounded, 
or rather blunt ogival. Sharp point bullets were later introduced, but 
always in light weights with a view to their use on small game rather 
than to cut down the resistance of the air. 

With the introduction of high-pressure, smokeless powder, and the 
increasing of velocities to around 2000 feet per second, a new material 
for bullets became necessary. The lead bullet caused many troubles 
with high-pressure powder. The base of the bullet would become 
fused or melted by the heat of the burning powder, and the bullet 
would lead the barrel badly. This led to the introduction of the 
jacketed bullets. These bullets have a core of lead enclosed in a 
jacket of copper, cupro-nickel, tin-plated copper, or mild steel. Very 
few steel jacketed bullets were ever made in this country, and I know 
of none being made today except by the Ross Rifle Company for special 
uses. The bullets made for American sporting rifles having 
velocities not exceeding 2200 feet per second are almost always made 
of copper plated with tin or nickel, to keep it from corroding. The 
United States Government bullets, and those for kindred commer- 
cial arms, are jacketed with cupro-nickel — an alloy of copper and 
nickel. Some few modern bullets such as those for the Newton rifles, 
and for the .250-3000 Savage rifle are jacketed with pure copper. A 
pure copper bullet seems to deposit less metal fouling in the bore of 
the rifle than those made of other materials. 

At the start the metal-jacketed bullets contained grooves for lubri- 
cant, but it was quickly found that this was not necessary, either as 
a lubricant for the bullet itself, or to make the cartridge waterproof. 
The grooves in the bullets were therefore discontinued, and the modern 
jacketed bullet is perfectly smooth, or else has only one shallow groove 
in which to crimp the shell. Where a cartridge is to remain loaded 
a long time, as with military ammunition, it is much better to have the 
neck of the shell just the diameter of the bullet inside, and to crimp 
the shell on to the bullet to hold the latter immovable in the shell. 
But where one reloads his own ammunition it is better to have the 
shell slightly smaller inside the neck, and force the bullet into the 
small neck to be held friction tight, as a little better accuracy results 
by following this method. But cartridges loaded in this manner are 
apt to split at the neck of the shells after several years storage. The 
brass neck of the shell under constant tension literally becomes tired 
and splits. 

Military jacketed bullets have the jacket completely covering the 



BULLETS 201 

point of the bullet, the core being inserted at the base, and the jacket 
crimped over the base. It was soon found that such bullets were un- 
satisfactory for large game shooting. They penetrated straight 
through animal tissue without causing much damage, and expended 
most of their energy beyond. The cartridge companies, however, soon 
came to the rescue of the sportsmen and put out what is known as 
the " soft-point " bullet, which has a little lead exposed at the point. 
The base of the bullet is completely jacketed over, the lead core being 
inserted, base first, into the jacket, and the jacket only coming up 

.30 Army 220 grain soft point pullets 




After firing into soft pine boards 
Before firing penetration 13 boards 

Fig. 68 
Showing the expansion of soft-point bullet 

to within about Y& inch of the point of the bullet. Such bullets ex- 
pand well on animal tissue, taking on a mushroom shape, and causing 
serious wounds. It has been found that the killing power on large 
game of a 220-grain, soft-point, jacketed bullet of .30 caliber driven 
at a velocity of 2000 feet per second is just about equivalent to that 
of the old 500-grain, .45-caliber, lead bullet driven at a velocity of 
about 1300 feet per second. The soft-point, jacketed bullet should 
therefore always be used Tor big-game shooting, and the full- jacketed 
bullet for target shooting, or for small game, particularly where it is 
desired to kill the small game without destroying more meat than 
is absolutely necessary, or tearing a large hole in the skin. Soft- 
point, 30-caliber bullets on broadside shots at deer usually penetrate 
completely through the animal, making a hole about 3 to 4 inches in 
diameter at point of exit, and spoiling the meat for about 5 inches 
around the wound. On small game such as squirrels, grouse, wood- 
chucks, and rabbits they are liable to blow the whole animal to pieces. 
After the new high-power rifles with their jacketed bullets had 
been in use for several years, riflemen began to complain that the 
bullets were wearing out the barrels. We know now that this was 
not so, and that the wear was caused partly by gas cutting at the 
breech due to the hot burning powder and the poor bullet fit, and 
partly by a lack of knowledge as to how to clean a high-power rifle 



202 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



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BULLETS 



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204 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

barrel. A decided demand grew for a lead bullet which could be used 
in the high-power rifle so as not to wear out the bore, and it was also 
wanted for cheap reloading and for small game. The first satisfactory 
results in this direction were secured by Mr. Horace Kephart, who 
designed the bullet known as the Ideal Bullet No. 308206 for .30- 
caliber rifles, and obtained excellent results with it in a .30-40 rifle 
with a light charge of Du Pont No. 1 smokeless rifle powder. It was 
afterwards found that any bullet would do satisfactory work in a 
high-power rifle having a quick twist, provided it was made of a 
hard alloy of about 1 part of tin to 10 parts of lead, was made from 
/iooo to 9iooo of an inch larger than the groove diameter of the barrel, 
and was used with a light charge of low-pressure smokeless powder 
giving velocities not over 1500 feet per second. Such loads with light 
bullets proved very satisfactory for gallery and small-game shoot- 
ing, and with slightly heavier bullets for practice up to 200 yards. 

The increase in the popularity of military rifle shooting, and the 
cost of the full charged military cartridge, as well as the mistaken 
belief that the jacketed bullets were wearing out the barrels, led to the 
demand for a lead bullet that could be used with high-pressure powder 
to give increased velocities, so as to be satisfactory for target use 
up to 600 yards. After considerable experimenting on the part of 
the Ideal Manufacturing Company, ably assisted by Dr. W. G. Hudson 
of the Du Pont Company, the former company brought out the series 
of Ideal gas-check bullets for use at high velocities in high-power 
rifles. These bullets are cast of a hard alloy, made several thousandths 
of an inch larger than the groove diameter of the barrel that they 
are intended to be used in, and then have a small, cup-shaped, copper 
disk seated on the base. This disk acts to keep the hot powder gases 
from burning or fusing, and melting the base of the alloy bullet and 
deforming it, thus destroying accuracy. These bullets have proved 
very satisfactory, being quite accurate up to 500 yards, and if extreme 
care be taken in loading they will be found fairly satisfactory at 600 
yards in the .30 caliber government arms. The rifleman can cast and 
prepare these bullets himself, and the expense is greatly reduced. 
The powder charges used are usually several grains less of the same 
powder used with the regular jacketed bullet, so as to give a velocity 
of about 1800 feet per second. When attempts are made to speed 
these bullets up much higher than this inaccuracy usually results. 

It seems to be a well-established fact that with ordinary lead or lead 
alloy bullets accuracy and good results cannot be obtained at velocities 



BULLETS 205 



Fig. 69b 
Bullets taken from big game, showing mushrooming and deformation: 

1. .45-70-330 from deer. 5. .38-55-255 lead, from black bear. 

2. .30-172 Newton, from deer. 6. .45-70 fired against steel plate. 

3. .45-70-436. 7. .280 Ross, steel jacket, hollow point. 

4. .45-70. 8. .280 Ross. 

over about 1550 feet per second, and that when smokeless powder 
is used the alloy should be very hard and the bullet slightly larger 
than the groove diameter of the barrel; that velocities up to about 
1900 feet per second can be obtained with good accuracy from hard 
lead alloy bullets when the base of the bullet is protected by a copper, 
gas check disk, but that when velocities reach 2000 feet per second 
accuracy can only be obtained from a metal-jacketed bullet. 

My own experiments and experiences show that the jacketed bullet 
is almost always advisable. I have found them quite a little more 
accurate than the lead bullets. With lead bullets, particularly with 
calibers below .32, it is necessary to experiment a lot to find just 
exactly the right kind of bullet, and the right kind of alloy to use 
to get the best results. It is a fact that as a lead alloy ages it grows 
slightly harder. A change of the powder charge almost always makes 
one start all over again to find the right temper for the bullets, and 
so it goes on with one endless round of experiments when one uses 
lead bullets. Gas-check bullets, and those over .38 caliber, are a little 
better, not so much experimenting being necessary to attain and 
maintain the best accuracy. All lead bullets are liable at one time or 
another to lead the bore; that is, to deposit flakes of lead in the bore. 
The metal fouling deposited by jacketed bullets can be easily dis- 
solved with the ammonia solution, but riflemen have yet to find a really 
good method of removing lead from the bore of a rifle. Mercury will 
help a little, but is not entirely satisfactory. Metal- jacketed bullets 
are also much easier to load. In fact in every way, except that of 
expense, metal- jacketed bullets are greatly superior to the lead-alloy 
bullets. 



206 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Up to about 1905 no attention had been given to the point of the 
bullet, with a view to reducing air resistance. It was believed that 
the point did not figure much in this respect, and bullets were made 
with round, blunt ogival, and fiat points. The flat-point bullet was 
designed for tubular magazine repeating rifles where the point of one 
bullet rested against the base and primer of the cartridge ahead of 
it in the magazine. The Germans were the first to introduce what 
is known as the " Spitzer " bullet. Spitzer simply means pointed, and 
a spitzer bullet is one with a long, sharp point, usually drawn on a 
curve of six or more diameters. The air offers very much less resist- 
ance to such bullets than to the old blunt points, and as a consequence 
the velocity of the former does not fall off nearly as quickly, and 
their time of flight over all ranges is much less. This is a decided 
advantage as the trajectory is of course lowered, and the speed of 
the bullet being greater there is less time for wind to act on it, there- 
fore, there is less deviation from winds. This spitzer bullet is the 
modern bullet, and all types of cartridges will be forced to come to it 
in the near future. Already it has been adopted by the armies of 
every nation, and by almost all progressive sportsmen. Several of 
our ammunition companies have succeeded in making satisfactory soft- 
point bullets in spitzer shape by ending the thick jacket a. short dis- 
tance back from the tip of the point and jacketing the tip itself with 
a thin, softer jacket. It has been found that if the tip be left en- 
tirely unjacketed or unsupported, as is done with the ordinary soft- 
point, jacketed bullet, the soft point under the extremely high velocity 
and high pressure has a tendency to upset and flow back, the bullet 
really making itself a blunt point before it reaches the target. Also 
unprotected, soft-point spitzer bullets are very liable to injury and 
ba<l dulling of the point, even in the original ammunition box, or in the 
belt or pocket of the rifleman. 

The Germans who introduced the Spitzer bullet by adopting it 
for their military rifle, made it to weigh 154 grains in 8 mm. This 
is equivalent to 150 grains in .30 caliber. The bullet was made light 
so as to give an extremely flat trajectory over military ranges. Our 
military shots soon found that these light bullets were not quite so 
good for long range shooting as a slightly longer and heavier bullet. 
Our service .30-caliber bullet weighs 150 grains, but the long range 
target shot prefers one weighing t8o grains for shooting at 800 and 
1000 yards. The longer bullet is slightly more accurate at these ranges 
and it is quite a little less affected by winds. At the same time it 



BULLETS 207 

has been found that 150 grains is a little too light for a satisfactory 
game bullet in .30 caliber. The light bullet does not always penetrate 
deeply enough, particularly when the rifleman obtains only a rear shot 
at large game, and it is not so good a bone smasher as the heavy 
bullet. Where a year or two ago riflemen used the 150-grain, soft- 
point or expanding spitzer bullet for game shooting in their .30- 
caliber, Model 1906 rifles, many of the better informed ones are 
coming to use the 180-grain bullet, and getting much better results. 



CHAPTER XI 

f 

CARTRIDGES 

TN this chapter are described the various cartridges adapted to 
■*• American rifles. All the popular and modern cartridges have 
been listed, but it has been necessary to exclude certain of the older 
and less popular, black-powder cartridges which have become obsolete. 
Each cartridge is fully described, together with a list of the rifles to 
which it is adapted, the use to which it is best adapted, and the game 
for which it is suitable. All the data available regarding the factory 
cartridge are given. 

In many cases detailed instructions for the loading of special leads 
is given. These leads are recommended because in many cases they 
are more powerful, more accurate, or less powerful and hence adapted 
for gallery use or for smaller game, than the factory cartridge. In 
every case these leads have been tried out, the breech pressures of 
the heavier loads being taken, and they may be regarded as safe and 
reliable if the instructions and cautions accompanying them are care- 
fully complied with. Where Ideal bullets are recommended the reader 
should consult the " Ideal Handbook " on reloading, which illustrates 
and describes all the Ideal bullets. It can be procured for four cents 
in stamps by addressing the Ideal Manufacturing Company, New 
Haven, Connecticut. Before attempting to reload any cartridge the 
reader should make himself thoroughly familiar with the chapters 
on modern rifle powders and reloading ammunition. In connec- 
tion with the cartridge one should also consult the description of the 
rifle to which it is adapted in Chapter IV. 

Where known, the penetration of the various cartridges with differ- 
ent bullets is given. This standard penetration test is made with %-inch 
pine boards set up 15 feet from the muzzle of the rifle. It is really 
no indication of the power of the cartridge. In many cases the 
penetration with a given bullet is less at high than at low velocity as 
the bullet is more upset and deformed at high velocity. 

The groove diameters of the standard barrels for the various 
cartridges are approximate only. For example, the standard diameter 

208 



CARTRIDGES 



209 








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210 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

of the barrel for the .30-40 cartridge is given as .308 inch, measuring 
from the bottom of one groove to the bottom of the opposite groove. 
Actually this diameter varies in different rifles from .308 to .310 inch, 
but .308 is the standard size. 

Wherever reloading is recommended, the chamber pressure of the 
various charges of powder is given. All these charges have been tried 
and found safe. I have myself tried over half of them, and at the 
same time have given accuracy tests to the various loads. But one 
caution should be given. During the last year (ipi6) the quality of 
the brass produced for cartridge shells has been very inferior. Many 
of these shells will not stand reloading with pressures over 48,000 
pounds per square inch. Wherever the pressure goes over this it 
would be well to cut down the powder charge about two grains, unless 
one knows that his shells are made of good brass such as the ammuni- 
tion companies were able to obtain prior to 1016. 

In a majority of cases under each cartridge have been given the 
" Standard pressure." Standard pressure is the mean pressure which 
should approximately be given by that cartridge when the standard 
velocity is developed. Each rifle manufacturer sets this standard for 
himself, taking into consideration the margin of safety in arms of his 
manufacture. It will be noticed that in the case of certain special 
loads giving superior ballistic results this standard pressure has been 
slightly exceeded. In every case where loads have been recommended 
which exceed this standard pressure, particular pains have been taken 
to ascertain that the rifles in which they are recommended have plenty 
of margin of safety to stand this excess pressure. 

An examination of the data here given will make it perfectly plain 
that in many cases the companies loading ammunition have . not 
modernized their ammunition to the extent that is permissible with 
modern powders. There are several reasons for this : the natural 
reluctance to change from existing standards, the fact that a change 
in the ballistics of a certain load makes necessary a change in the sight- 
ing of the rifle, and the fact that in many cases an increase in the 
velocity gained by the adoption of modern progressive burning 
powders entails a larger charge of powder and a consequent increase 
in the expense of loading the ammunition. As opposed to these rea- 
sons it may be cited that such a change means increased ballistic 
efficiency in the cartridge and rifle, an increase in the accuracy life of 
the rifle, and in many cases greater ease in cleaning and less trouble 
with corrosion. These advantages are such that the rifleman himself 



CARTRIDGES 



211 



would seem to have a right to demand that the loading companies turn 
from their old powders of ten years ago to more modern powders 
and bullets, and this view-point is having its effect, as it is known that 
in a number of cases the standards have recently been changed. 



.22 SHORT, RIM-FIRE CARTRIDGE 



This is the lightest cartridge adapted to any American rifle. As a 
matter of fact there are two smaller cartridges of this caliber known 



.22-short, rim-fire cartridge 

as BB and CB caps, but these cannot be recommended, and are hardly 
worth mentioning. They are not accurate or reliable, and their use 
will ruin any rifle. The .22-short, rim-fire cartridge is loaded with 
about 4 grains of black powder, or its equivalent in other powders, 
and a lead bullet of 29 or 30 grains. It is designed for short range 
use in .22-caliber rifles. It is a most excellent cartridge for gallery 
use up to 25 yards in rifles that are chambered and rifled especially 
for it alone. Such rifles should have a twist of rifling of from one 
turn in 20 inches to one turn in 24 inches. This cartridge has been 
used for years by the most expert Schuetzen riflemen for their 25- 
yard gallery competitions, and has proved excellent for the purpose 
and very accurate. Given a first-class rifle and fresh ammunition, and 
one can rely On every shot striking a ten-cent piece at 25 yards, pro- 
vided always he does his part correctly. The best ammunition for ac- 
curacy at the present time is that loaded with either Lesmok or semi- 
smokeless powder. This cartridge is recommended entirely for gal- 
lery shooting up to 25 yards. Its accurate range is about 50 yards. 
It should never be used for game shooting as it is entirely too light 
for anything but rats and English sparrows. A hollow-point bullet is 
furnished by some factories, but the velocity is so small that in the 
majority of cases the bullet does not expand as intended. 

Almost always the choice of this cartridge is a mistake, as, except for 
25 yard (and shorter) gallery shooting where expense and noise are a 
consideration, it is completely outranked in every way by the .22-long 
rifle cartridge. Certain cautions should be observed regarding this 
cartridge. Its continued use in a rifle chambered for the .22-long, or 
.22-long rifle cartridge will result in ruining the chamber of the rifle 
through burning it out just forward of the mouth of the shell. Under 



212 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

no circumstances should this cartridge ever be used loaded with smoke- 
less powder as the barrel is sure to become ruined in a short time. 
There is no known way of cleaning a .22-caliber rifle barrel to prevent 
ruination through pitting and rusting when .22-caliber smokeless am- 
munition is used in it. The smokeless ammunition is more expensive 
and less accurate than when loaded with black, Lesmok, or semi-smoke- 
less powders. When shooting with this cartridge the barrel should 
be cleaned about every 50 rounds to get the best results, and to pre- 
vent leading' the bore. 

The muzzle velocity of this cartridge is about 900 feet per second, and 
its muzzle energy about 54 foot pounds, but these figures will differ 
slightly with the various manufacturers and also with various powders 
used. The standard pressure is 9000 to 10,000 pounds per square 
inch. 

.22-LONG RIFLE, RIM-FIRE CARTRIDGE 

In many respects this is one of the most remarkable cartridges ever 
produced. It is essentially a target cartridge, and it is remarkably 
accurate up to 100 yards, at that range not being excelled by any other 






.22-long rifle, rim-fire cartridge 

cartridge. It is adapted to a great variety of rifles and is extremely 
popular among all classes of riflemen. It is used almost exclusively by 
all the small-bore rifle clubs in this country and England. Many dif- 
ferent small repeating rifles are made to handle it by all our arms com- 
panies, but it is only in the heavy, single-shot, target rifle that the 
cartridge has a chance to show what it is really capable of doing. The 
following are the average ballistics of this cartridge, although the 
product of various factories differs quite a little : 

Weight of bullet 40 grains 

Weight of black-powder charge 5 grains 

Muzzle velocity 970 feet per second 

Muzzle energy 83 foot pounds 

Penetration in %-inch pine boards 5V2 boards 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 10,000 to 12,000 

The cartridge is furnished by the various companies loaded with 
black, Lesmok, semi-smokeless, and smokeless powders ; the latter, 
however, should never be used, as it is less accurate, less powerful, 
higher trajectory, more expensive, and there is no way known of 



CARTRIDGES 213 

cleaning the bore when smokeless cartridges are used which will pre- 
vent ultimate pitting and ruin of the barrel. The cartridge can be 
furnished in both solid and hollow-pointed bullets, the latter increasing 
the killing power quite a little. But even with hollow-point bullets the 
killing power of this cartridge is so small that its use on any game 
larger than rats and English sparrows will result in so much crippled 
and wounded game, with all its attending suffering, that I wish to 
recommend strongly that this cartridge never be used for hunting, al- 
though I am aware that it is at the present time a very popular grouse 
and squirrel cartridge, and many times it has even killed large game 
when the bullet has happened to hit an instantly vital part. I myself, 
when a boy, killed a deer with this cartridge. But in recent years I 
have seen so many squirrels and grouse fairly hit with it, only to 
struggle off to die in misery that I have entirely given it up as a squirrel 
and grouse cartridge in favor of the .25-caliber rim-fire cartridge. 

In the year 1910 I conducted a large number of accuracy tests with 
this cartridge on a 100-yard, indoor armory range. The rifle used 
was a Winchester single shot with a heavy No. 3 barrel, set triggers, 
and a Winchester type A-5 telescope sight. The rifle weighed ten 
pounds and had a most accurate, barrel. The experiments developed 
many things already known about this cartridge, and also many things 
that were at that time not generally known, although they have since 
been found out by others in the course of the shooting of this car- 
tridge by thousands of expert riflemen in the .22-caliber indoor and 
short-range rifle clubs and leagues. These tests showed that cart- 
ridges loaded with Lesmok and semi-smokeless powder were much 
more accurate than those loaded with black or smokeless. That freshly 
loaded ammunition bought directly from the factory was much more 
accurate on an average than that purchased in stores in small towns 
where it had been on the dealer's shelf for quite a long time; that 
various lots of ammunition showed considerable difference in accuracy, 
although 95 per cent, of it was remarkably good ; that the ammunition 
shot better on some days than on others, being considerably influenced 
in this respect by the amount of moisture in the air; that the par- 
ticular rifle did its best shooting with a certain make of ammunition, 
and that it also shot relatively poorly with a certain make that did 
best in another rifle, also of Winchester manufacture. 

The following tabulation of tests fired with three makes of car- 
tridges will be of interest to the reader. The figures are the average of 
10 groups of 10 shots each fired from rest with the rifle described 



214 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



above, the measurement being from center to center of shot holes 
farthest apart. 



Cartridge 


25 yards, ! 50 yards, 1 100 yards, 
inches inches j inches 


Remington — U. M. C. 

Lesmok 


i 

•75 T oi 


3 96 • 
403 

2 61 


Winchester 

Peters 

Semi-smokeless 


.90 

.Co 


2.00 
1.30 









It should be distinctly understood that this table does not in any way 
indicate the relative accuracy of the various makes, but only shows the 
average results of a rather extensive test with one rifle and three dif- 
ferent lots of ammunition. In another rifle the relative accuracy of 
the three makes of cartridges might be exactly reversed. In fact, many 
tests of this cartridge have shown positively that all makes of this am- 
munition loaded with these two powders are remarkably accurate and 
reliable, but that every rifle has one particular make with which it seems 
to do better than with the others, and this particular make cannot be 
determined without a test similar to the above. 

One test was conducted to get a line on the trajectory of the various 
cartridges, or, more particularly, on the drop of the bullet. The rifle 
was sighted in on the 25-yard target, and when shooting nicely was 
turned on one at 50 yards, the 50-yard group being fired with the 
sight adjustment correct for 25 yards. This gave a drop of the bul- 
let below the point of aim at 50 yards as follows : 

U. S. Cartridge Co., Lesmok 50 inch 

Peters, crimped, Semi-smokeless 1.25 inches 

Peters, tmcrimped, Semi-smokeless 75 inch 

Winchester, Lesmok 87 inch 

Remington — U. M. C. Lesmok 25 inch 

No attempt is made to explain these differences. They are simply 

the actual results of the test. In another extensive test the average 

elevation required for 50 and 100 yards above the 25-yard elevation 

was as follows : 



Cartridge 


Minutes of an 
the 


gle 


of 

yarc 


elevation required above 
elevation for 




50 yards 








100 yards 


Peters, 


1 1/2 

2% 




8% 


Remington — U. M. C. 
Winchester 


6V2 
10% 



It was decidedly noticeable that in that year, 1910-11, the Reming- 



CARTRIDGES 215 

ton-U. M. C. Lesmok cartridges were striking the target butts much 
harder than any of the other makes tried, which included almost all 
makes on the market. 

The angles of elevation given by the Remington-U. M. C. Co., for 
their .22-long rifle Lesmok cartridge are as follows: 

25 yards 4 minutes 125 yards 23 minutes 

50 yards 9 minutes 150 yards 28 minutes 

75 yards 13-5 minutes 175 yards 33.5 minutes 

100 yards 18 minutes 200 yards 39 minutes 

The following experiments were conducted by Mr. C. S. Landis, 
and I have every confidence in them. The rifle was a Stevens Ideal 
with heavy barrel and a telescope sight set on top of the barrel. The 
ammunition used was Peters, loaded with semi-smokeless powder. The 
rifle was carefully targeted at 25 yards, the 25-yard group of course 
striking center. With this sighting the rifle was then fired at tar- 
gets placed at 45 and 60 yards. The 45-yard group measured 1% inches 
and its center of impact was just half an inch below the point of aim. 
The 60-yard group measured 1 inch, and was just 2 inches low. Both 
these groups contained 24 shots. The sights were then set for 50 
yards and the experiments repeated at 60, 45, and 25 yards. At 60 
yards the rifle shot 1% inches low, at 45 yards Vi inch high, and at 
25 yards .6 inch high. 

All of the above tests are given to show the average work of this 
cartridge, the average trajectory, etc. In scanning them, it will be at 
once apparent how necessary it is, even on a .22-caliber rifle, to have 
sights which are readily adjustable in order to have the rifle shoot where 
it is held. The rifleman may sight his rifle in with one lot of am- 
munition, and a month later go to the same store and purchase identi- 
cally the same make of ammunition but from another lot ; that is, made 
on a different machine at the factory from the first lot he purchased, 
and probably also loaded with a different shipment of powder from 
the powder factory. This lot may shoot as much as 1V2 inches away 
from the point of impact of the first lot at 25 yards, and how is one 
ever to be sure of his sighting with the sights almost invariably fur- 
nished with the small .22-caliber repeating rifles? The small re- 
peating rifle should shoot almost as accurately as the heavy .22-caliber 
target rifle, for the bores are identical, and the factory spends just as 
much time and labor on rifling one of the repeating rifles as it does 
the target rifle. But the light weight of the rifle, the coarser trigger 
pull, and the crude sights make it impossible for the rifleman to do 



2l6 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



his part as well with the light repeater as with the heavy single shot. 
In order to show just what this cartridge is capable of when things 
are working just right, I record below the results of 40 consecutive 
shots fired from my Winchester single-shot rifle equipped with tele- 
scope sight. Ten shots each were fired at 2.5, 50, 75, and 100 yards, 
indoors, rest, without cleaning, with Peters uncrimped ammunition 
loaded with semi-smokeless powder. 



Range, ' 
yards 


Elevation, 
minutes 


Wind-gauge 


Size of group, 
inches 


25 ■ 
50 

75 

IOO 


4 
6 

9 

13 


O 

O 
O 


•47 
1. os 
1. 16 
1.49 



.22 WINCHESTER RIM-FIRE CARTRIDGE 






This is an inside lubricated, rim-fire cartridge adapted to the Win- 
chester repeating rifle Model 1890, the Winchester single shot rifle, 
the Stevens Ideal single shot rifle, and the Remington-U. M. C. re- 
peating rifle Model 12CS. It is loaded with 7 grains of black powder 
and a 45-grain bullet, both solid and hollow-point bullets being fur- 
nished. It can also be had loaded with Lesmok and smokeless pow- 
ders, the latter powder not being recommended as cartridges loaded 
with it are more expensive, less accurate, and when they are used there 
is no known way of keeping the bore of the rifle from pitting and rust. 
Best results will be obtained from cartridges loaded with Lesmok 
powder. The following is data for the regular factory cartridge as 
manufactured by the Winchester Arms Company : 

Muzzle velocity 1,107 feet per second 

Velocity at 100 yards 915 feet per second 

Muzzle energy 122 foot pounds 

Energy at 100 yards 84 foot pounds 

100 yards trajectory height at 50 yards 4.39 inches 

200 3'ards trajectory, height at 100 yards 20.82 inches 

Penetration, %-inch pine boards 7 boards 

Standard pressure, lbs. per sq. in 13,000 to 15,000 

The .22 Remington Special is identically the same cartridge but manu- 
factured by the Remington-U. M. C. Co., for use in Remington 
rifles. 

This cartridge is not in the same class as the .22-long rifle as far as 
accuracy is concerned, nevertheless it is quite accurate up to 150 



CARTRIDGES 217 

yards, and is a very much better killing cartridge for small game 
such as grouse and squirrels. Its trajectory is such that it is diffi- 
cult to hit game with it at ranges over 75 yards unless the range is very 
carefully estimated and allowance made for the fall of the bullet, 
either by sight adjustment or by holding over. At 25 yards in a good 
rifle it should place all its shots in a circle Vs inch in diameter, and at 
50 yards into a 2-inch circle. This makes it rather unsuitable for very 
accurate shooting, like squirrel shooting, except at short ranges. It 
is, however, a better hunting cartridge than any of the outside lubri- 
cated, .22-caliber cartridges, as the grease is not rubbed off the bul- 
lets when the ammunition is carried loose in the pocket, and the 
action of repeating rifles handling it is not dirtied up with the exposed 
lubricant. It is also a much better cartridge for use in the extreme 
cold of northern countries where an outside lubricated cartridge is 
sometimes apt to freeze fast in the chamber. This cartridge requires 
a barrel specially chambered and rifled for it, and cannot be used in 
barrels adapted to the other, .22-caliber, rim-fire cartridges. 

.22 SAVAGE HIGH-POWER CARTRIDGE 




Adapted to the Savage Model 1899 repeating rifle. This is a 
modern cartridge of high intensity and very high velocity. The fol- 
lowing is the data for the factory cartridge and rifle : 

Muzzle velocity 2,800 feet per second 

Velocity at 100 yards 2,453 feet per second 

Velocity at 200 yards 2,131 feet per second 

Velocity at 300 yards 1,833 ^ ee t per second 

Muzzle energy 1,190 foot pounds 

Energy at 100 yards 911 foot pounds 

Energy at 200 yards 687 foot pounds 

Energy at 300 yards 510 foot pounds 

100 yards trajectory, height at 50 yards 62 inch 

200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 2.75 inches 

300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 8.00 inches 

Penetration, soft point bullet, %-inch boards 12 boards 

Penetration, full patch bullet, %-inch boards 52 boards 

Powder charge, Du Pont No. 21 24.3 grains 

Bullet, pointed, soft point, copper jacket 70 grains 

Diameter of bullet 228 inch 

Groove diameter of bore of rifle, about 226 inch 

Depth of grooves 003 inch 

Twist of rifling, one turn in 12 inches 

Chamber pressure, pounds per square inch 48,000 to 50,000 



2l8 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



The following powder charges may also be used with good results 
in this cartridge : with the regular 70-grain jacketed bullet : 



Powder 


Grains 
weight 


Velocity, 
feet per 
second 


Pressure, 

foot 

pounds 


Du Pont military rifle No. 20 


27-5 

24-3 
27-5 

27.9 

27.0 

27.8 


2,7SO 
2,8oO 
2,700 
2,80O 
2,803 
2,850 


48,000 


Du Pont military rifle No. 21 


48,000 


Du Pont improved military rifle No. 15.. 
Du Pont improved military rifle No. 18. . 
Du Pont improved military rifle No. 16.. 
Du Pont improved military rifle No. 16.. 


48,900 
46,920 



All of these powder charges should be carefully weighed on scales, 
and not measured, except the Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21, 
which can be measured quite accurately on the Ideal universal powder 
measure No. 5. The next to last charge of 27 grains of No. 16 pow- 
der is recommended as giving low pressure and very clean shooting. 

For a short range load I have had very good results from the Ideal 
bullet No. 228367 with gas check and 12 grains weight of Du Pont 
gallery rifle powder No. 75. This makes a very nice and accurate 
load. The Ideal Manufacturing Co. recommend that this bullet be 
used with 17 grains of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21. This 
I have not tried. 

The Savage rifle for this cartridge has been christened by Mr. E. C. 
Crossman as the Imp. It is well named. I do not regard it as a reli- 
able cartridge. Some rifles shoot this cartridge fairly well, and others 
give groups of about 12 inches at 200 yards. It is an effective car- 
tridge for deer and similar game at ranges under 200 yards, as the 
velocity gives an explosive effect to the bullet which is very destructive 
to tissue. The bullet, however, being very light, is prone to fly to 
pieces on large bones and fail to penetrate into the vitals, and the 
proportions of failures are a little too numerous to make it a reliable 
cartridge on large game. It has not the required accuracy for small 
game shooting. The rifle to which the cartridge is adapted has a 20- 
inch, very light barrel, weighs only 6Y2 pounds, and the construction 
of the action is such that it is not possible to get a very good trigger 
pull with it. It is a hard rifle to shoot accurately on account of these 
features, and this adds to the general unreliability of the cartridge and 
rifle. In all points this cartridge, and rifle, are so far outclassed by the 
newer Savage cartridge, the .250-3000, that I look for it to become 
obsolete in several years. It is really a freak, and because it was 
such it obtained quite a popularity at one time due to its very light 
weight, small size, small caliber, and very high velocity. As its 



CARTRIDGES 219 

manufacturers say, " It was the most talked of rifle in America." 

.25 STEVENS RIM-FIRE CARTRIDGE 




: : 3 



! //HOLLOW P INT I 



This cartridge is adapted to Stevens Favorite and Ideal single shot 
rifles, Winchester and Remington-U. M. C. single shot rifles, and to the 
Marlin repeating rifle Model 27. It is loaded with 10 to 11 grains 
of black powder, and an inside lubricated lead bullet of 65 to 67 grains 
weight. It is also furnished by some cartridge companies loaded with 
Lesmok powder and with hollow-point bullets of 5 grains less weight 
than the solid bullets. It is not at present loaded with smokeless 
powder. The following is the data for the regular factory cartridge 
as loaded by the Remington-U. M. C. Co. : 

Muzzle velocity 1,180 feet per second 

Muzzle energy 208 foot pounds 

100 yards trajectory, height at 50 yards 5.12 inches 

Penetration, vfe-inch pine boards 7 boards 

This cartridge is strongly recommended as a small game cartridge 
up to 50 yards. It makes a most excellent grouse cartridge for sports- 
men to use on their trips after large game as it kills the birds neatly 
without ruining meat. It is hardly accurate enough for squirrel shoot- 
ing except at ranges not over 25 yards. It is advertised as a very 
accurate cartridge, but I have failed to find it so. It does not hold its 
elevation well, and when tested on a chronograph a great variation 
in velocity is found. As a result the shots string up and down on the 
target. An average target shot at rest by an expert rifleman at 25 
yards in a first-class rifle will measure about 1.25 inches high by .75 
inch wide. 

I found that the killing power of this cartridge, and its effect as 
regards the fitness of the game for the table or taxidermist, were so 
excellent that I went to considerable time and expense to obtain satis- 
factory results with it. First I procured a Winchester single shot 
rifle with heavy No. 3 barrel chambered and rifled for this cartridge, 
the barrel having the regular 17-inch twist. This barrel was tried on 
the Mann " V " rest with concentric action and showed the follow- 
ing average for a large number of shots : 

25 yards 1.43 inches 100 yards 3.07 inches 

50 yards 2.57 inches 200 yards 6.00 inches 



220 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



The barrel was then cut off at the breech and chambered by Mr. A. O. 
Neidner with one of his perfect, tight chambers and tried again. 
The groups were about a half-inch smaller at 25 yards, but both before 
and after chambering this rifle gave many key-holes. A .25-caliber 
barrel with a 14-inch twist was then procured and chambered for this 
cartridge by Neidner, as it was thought that this would improve the 
shooting by stopping the tendency to key-hole. This barrel was also 
tested on the Mann " V " rest on covered range and gave the follow- 
ing groups : 



25 yards 


50 yards 


100 yards 


.75 inches 


2.25* inches 


2.67 inches 


.95 inches 


1.94 inches 


2.73 inches 


1.07 inches 


1.97 inches 


2.13 inches 


.78 inches 


1.84 inches 


3.12 inches 


1. 10 inches 


1.95 inches 


2.87 inches 


1.06 inches 


1.43 inches 


2.76 inches 


1.33 inches 


2.3S inches 


3.14 inches 


1.30 inches 


1.98 inches 





.78 inches 


2.54 inches 
1.42 inches 


Av. 2,917 inches 


T . 1.013 inches 


I.96 inches 
1.76 inches 

Av. 1.966 inches 





All the groups contained ten consecutive shots and were fired with 
United States Cartridge Co. ammunition, shells uncrimped, and Lesmok 
powder except that marked * which was fired with Remington-U. M. 
C. black-powder cartridges. All ammunition was purchased fresh 
from the factory. 

.25-20 WINCHESTER CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE 

(For Repeating Rifles) 




This cartridge is adapted to the Winchester repeating rifle, Model 
1892, and to Marlin repeating rifles, Model 1894 and Model 27. This 
cartridge was brought out to fill a demand for a .25-20 repeating rifle. 
By taking the .32-20 shell and necking it down to .25-caliber the manu- 
facturers were able to produce a cartridge having almost identical 
ballistics to the .25-20 single-shot .cartridge, and to use it in actions 
adapted to the .32-20 cartridge, thus obviating the necessity of bringing 
out an entirely new rifle and action to fill the demand. 



CARTRIDGES 221 

The factory cartridge loaded with black powder contains 17 grains 
of powder and an 86-grain bullet. Smokeless cartridges are also 
provided by the factories loaded with sufficient Sharpshooter smoke- 
less powder to give the same, or a few feet more, velocity as black 
powder. There is also a high velocity cartridge furnished, which has 
a little more Sharpshooter powder than the ordinary smokeless car- 
tridge, and gives a few hundred feet per second higher velocity. The 
following are the ballistics of the factory cartridges : 

BLACK AND LOW POWER SMOKELESS CARTRIDGE 

Muzzle velocity 1,376 feet per second 

Velocity at 100 yards 1,108 feet per second 

Muzzle energy 362 foot pounds 

Energy at 100 yards 235 foot pounds 

100 yards trajectory, height at 50 yards 2.88 inches 

200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 14.08 inches 

300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 41.03 inches 

Penetration, lead bullet, %-inch boards 9 boards 

Penetration S. P. bullet, %-inch boards 8 boards 

Penetration, F. P. bullet, %-inch boards 11 boards 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 20,000 to 22,000 

HIGH VELOCITY CARTRIDGE 

Muzzle velocity 1.732 feet per second 

Velocity at 100 yards 1,371 feet per second 

Muzzle energy 573 foot pounds 

Energy at 100 yards 359 foot pounds 

100 yards trajectory, height at 50 yards 1.82 inches 

2CO yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 9.37 inches 

300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 26.22 inches 

Penetration, soft point bullet, %-inch boards.... 10 boards 

Penetration, full patch bullet, %-inch boards 20 boards 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 27,500 to 30,000 

In the winter of 191 1 I conducted a very thorough accuracy test 
with a Winchester Model 1892 rifle chambered for this cartridge. 
The rifle had an ordinary barrel of the steel regularly adapted to 
black powder. The tests were all made at 50 yards from a very good 
muzzle and elbow rest. Ten groups of ten shots each were fired with 
each kind of ammunition, and the average is shown in the table on 
following page, the groups being measured from center to center of 
shot holes farthest apart. 

As a result of these tests the Winchester low pressure smokeless 
cartridge was chosen for use in this rifle, and I used it for a summer's 
shooting in Maine for small game. Subsequent trials seemed to show 
that this cartridge was even more accurate than in the initial tests. The 
combination proved fine for small game shooting, and this was one of 
the most satisfactory little rifles for a time that I have ever owned. 



222 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



Ammunition 

Winchester, black powder, lead bullet.. 
Winchester, low pressure smokeless, 

soft point bullet 

Winchester, high velocity, soft point 

bullet 

Remington — U. M. C. black powder, 

lead bullet 

Remington — U. M. C. low pressure 

smokeless soft point bullet 

Remington — U. M. C. high velocity, 

soft point bullet 

Peters, semi-smokeless, lead bullet 




Remarks 



Bad caking at breech. 

Very accurate, i group 

measured .8 inches. 
Clean. 

Bad caking at breech. 

Clean. 

Clean. 

Xo caking, less fouling 
than black powder. 



As I was a little afraid of the Sharpshooter powder, which I knew to 
be very hard on barrels, the greatest care was taken in cleaning this 
rifle. The barrel was always cleaned in the following manner. First, 
it was thoroughly scrubbed with the ammonia swabbing solution (see 
chapter on The Cleaning and Care of the Rifle), and then thoroughly 
dried. It was then cleaned again with oil, and finally liberally oiled 
with Marble's Nitro-solvent Oil. It was never left over night without 
cleaning, and it was always cleaned again on the following day in the 
same manner. Despite this care, after about 300 rounds of this 
ammunition had been fired from it the barrel began to show pitting, 
and the pitting progressed so fast that after about 500 rounds had been 
fired the accuracy began to deteriorate. After about 600 rounds it 
would no longer hold a 2% inch group at 50 yards, and the rifle was 
disposed of. 

Pitting in a rifle barrel is practically always caused by the acid foul- 
ing of the primer, where the rifle is properly clearfed. It was after- 
wards found that when small charges of smokeless powder are used 
the fouling of the powder does not dilute the fouling of the primer to 
any extent. In this case the primer fouling is so acid that it starts to 
eat the bore right away as soon as deposited. The fouling of most 
smokeless powders is a little alkaline, but Sharpshooter powder seems 
to be less alkaline than others, therefore when a small charge of Sharp- 
shooter powder is used in a shell we have an extremely acid primer 
fouling. This was the cause of the deterioration of this barrel. It 
may be said that while at first rifles adapted to this cartridge will prove 
most satisfactory when used with the low-pressure smokeless ammuni- 
tion as loaded by the factories, and particularly by the Winchester 
Company, yet this cartridge and rifles adapted to it cannot be rec- 
ommended because of the ultimate ruination of the bore when factory 
ammunition is used. 



CARTRIDGES 223 

It is possible for the rifleman to load excellent ammunition for this 
rifle and cartridge which will not have this bad effect on the bore. 
If the rifle has a barrel of nickel steel, or special smokeless steel, these 
steels being furnished on special order, then very excellent results, as 
good accuracy as with the low-pressure, factory, smokeless cartridge, 
can be obtained by using a smokeless primer and as much Schuetzen 
smokeless powder as can be gotten in the shell without crushing it 
when the bullet is seated. Use the Winchester soft-point, jacketed 
bullet. If, however, the rifle has the ordinary black-powder, steel 
barrel a black-powder primer must be used, and as this primer will not 
satisfactorily ignite a straight smokeless charge it will be necessary to 
prime with black powder. Therefore the following load is recom- 
mended for rifles having black-powder steel barrels : Remington-U. 
M. C. primers Nos. 1 or 1Y2. Two grains bulk of F. F. G. or F. F. F. 
G. black powder placed in the base of the shell, and on top of it 
about 6 grains weight (15 grains black powder measure) of Schuetzen 
(Du Pont) smokeless powder. A Winchester 86-grain, soft-point, 
jacketed bullet. This charge will also give excellent results, and will 
not ruin the barrel. 

It cannot be impressed too strongly on riflemen that accuracy is 
absolutely essential in any rifle intended for small game shooting. 
Draw a life-size outline of small game and see how small the vital 
parts are. Even at the short range of 50 yards a very accurate 
cartridge is necessary to make a sure shot into the vitals. An in- 
accurate rifle will give many misses on this kind of game, and will 
also give many hits not in vital parts, and thus cause much suffering 
and wounded game, and therefore be entirely unsuitable for small- 
game shooting. For this reason, and also because of its bad effect 
on the bore, the high velocity cartridge cannot be recommended. It is 
not as accurate, has very little more power than the ordinary cartridge, 
and the difference in trajectory is so slight as to make little practical 
difference. In fact, on account of the rather poor accuracy of the 
high-velocity cartridge, a good shot can make sure shots on small 
game at a longer range with the low-pressure smokeless cartridge. The 
low-pressure cartridge is sufficiently powerful for all small game. In 
fact it will tear grouse and squirrels up pretty badly. It will even 
kill deer very neatly if it strikes a vital spot, but it is most decidedly 
not recommended for a deer rifle. This cartridge is a most excellent 
one for turkeys, foxes, woodchucks, coyotes, western ground squirrels, 
and similar game at ranges up to 75 or 100 yards, and when a repeat- 



224 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

ing rifle is desired. Beyond ioo yards this rifle is not satisfactory for 
small game as the trajectory is too high. 

.25-20 SINGLE-SHOT CARTRIDGE 

) j 1 ^mm^m _i-< 




Mr. J. F. Rabboth, a member of the Massachusetts Rifle Association, 
deserves credit for originating the .25-caliber rifle. He wrote the 
first article advocating such a rifle in the April 18, 1889, issue of 
" Shooting and Fishing," but for three years prior to this he had 
been experimenting with a .25-caliber rifle made especially to order 
for him by the Remington Arms Company. The shell was made by 
necking down the .32-caliber shell for the Wesson rifle. The charge 
was 32 grains of Hazard's ducking powder and a 76-grain lead bul- 
let. The 200-yard trajectory was but 7 inches high at 100 yards. It 
was experiments with this rifle that led up to the placing on the mar- 
ket of the .25-20 single-shot cartridge in the summer of 1889. The 
Maynard rifle was the first arm placed on the market chambered for 
this cartridge, followed several weeks later by the old Stevens tip-up 
rifle. The cartridge was first made by the Union Metallic Cartridge 
Company. 

The factory black-powder cartridge is furnished loaded with 20 
grains of powder and an 86-grain lead bullet. Smokeless powder 
cartridges are also furnished loaded with Sharpshooter powder and 
either lead or jacketed bullets. The following are the ballistics of this 
cartridge as loaded by the various factories : 

Muzzle velocity 1,412 feet per second 

Velocity at 100 yards 1,133 feet per second 

Muzzle energy 381 foot pounds 

Energy at 100 yards 245 foot pounds 

100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 2.74 inches 

200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 13.52 inches 

300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 35-8o inches 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 21,000 to 23,00c 

Penetration, lead bullet, %-inch boards 9 boards 

Penetration, S. P. bullet, %-inch boards 8 boards 

Penetration, F. P. bullet, %-inch boards 11 boards 

The black and smokeless cartridges as loaded by the ammunition 
factories will give about the same results in this rifle as similar car- 
tridges in rifles chambered for the .25-20 Winchester center-fire car- 



CARTRIDGES 225 

tridge. The smokeless factory cartridge also has the same ruining 
effect on barrels as the similar cartridge for the .25-20 W. C. F. 
Neither of these cartridges are therefore recommended, and the rifle- 
man should load his own ammunition, purchasing new primed shells 
in the first place. 

Black-powder cartridges, or cartridges loaded with semi-smokeless 
powder, do fairly well when a 77-grain bullet is used. The 14-inch 
twist with which most of the rifles adapted to this cartridge are cut 
is a little too slow for the 86-grain bullet at the velocity given with 
the full charge of black-powder, and many bullets keyhole. The lead 
bullet should be loaded projecting a little farther from the shell than 
that of the factory cartridge, which is possible with a single-shot rifle. 
But the best accuracy is obtained with a smokeless charge and a 
jacketed bullet. 

The .25-20 single shot is one of my favorite rifles, and I conducted 
a great many experiments with various rifles of this caliber running 
over a number of years from 1899 to 1915. It is not necessary to 
tabulate all these here, suffice to say that by far the best results were 
obtained by the following load : Winchester shells ; Winchester No. 
iW primers; 8.5 grains weight of Du Pont Schuetzen powder; the 87- 
grain Savage soft-point spitzer bullet made for the .250-3000 Savage 
rifle loaded as far out of the shell as could be and the cartridge still 
be easily loaded into the chamber without force. The regular .25- 
caliber, 86-grain, soft-point bullet was also tried and did very well, 
but did not give quite as satisfactory results as regards accuracy as 
the Savage bullet. This load with the Savage bullet gave groups 
averaging 1.25 inches at 50 yards, and groups as small as .68 inches 
have been fired with it at that range. The rifle used was a Win- 
chester single-shot rifle with a 27-inch, No. 3 round, nickel-steel bar- 
rel, set triggers, and Winchester type A5 telescope sight. With a 
black-powder, steel barrel I would recommend using the Remington-U. 
M. C. No. 1 or No. 1V2 primer, a priming charge of 2 grains of F. F. 
F. G. black powder, and a proportionately smaller charge of Schuetzen 
powder as in the case of the .25-20 Winchester center-fire cartridge 
in order to prevent the barrel becoming pitted. 

A trajectory test of this special load was made in this rifle as follows : 
Five shots at 50 yards gave a group measuring .71 inches, and the load 
struck center. Ten shots were then fired at 65 yards with the same 
sight adjustment, resulting in a group measuring 2.00 inches, the center 
of impact of which was 1.17 inches below the point of aim. Ten 



226 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

shots were then fired at 25 yards with the same 50-yard sight adjust- 
ment, resulting in a group measuring .73 inches, which was .25 inches 
below the point of aim. The rifle was then fired at 65 yards and the 
sight correctly adjusted for that range. With this sight adjustment it 
was found to shoot V2 inch high at 50 yards and exact center at 25 
yards. It was therefore decided that the correct range for which to 
have the sights adjusted for small game shooting was 65 yards. It 
should be remembered that in this test a telescope sight, mounted high 
above the barrel, was used, and that the line of sight was about 1% 
inches above the axis of the bore. 

Bore sighting. When correctly adjusted telescope is aligned on the 
center of the bull's-eye at 50 yards, a sight on the target through the 
bore strikes the target approximately 4 inches above the bull's-eye. 

This special load has now been used in this Winchester rifle for four 
years with most excellent results, and the bore, which has always been 
carefully cleaned not later than the evening of the day on which it was 
fired, is still in perfect condition. With this load this rifle is a most 
excellent small game and short-range target rifle. It kills all kinds 
of small game neatly, but is too powerful for grouse, as it ruins much 
of the meat, and if grey squirrels are to be fit for the table they must 
be hit in the head, an easy matter with this outfit up to about 70 yards. 

At present this cartridge is only adapted to the Winchester single- 
shot rifle, and the Stevens Ideal rifle. 

The diameter of all .25-caliber bullets is .257 inch, and all rifles of 
this caliber that I have measured have practically this groove diameter 
also. 

.25-21 STEVENS CARTRIDGE; .25-25 STEVENS CARTRIDGE 

These cartridges are identical except that the latter has a little longer 
shell to enable it to hold 4 grains more powder. They are both adapted 
to the Stevens Ideal single-shot rifle. Quite a number of Winchester 
single-shot rifles have also been rechambered for the .25-21 cartridge 
by private parties. The shells are straight inside, and a straight taper 
outside. They were very popular in the days of black powder and 
were brought out in answer to the demand for a straight .25-caliber 
shell, as it has always been thought that black powder shot better from 
a straight shell than from a bottle-necked one. The .25-20 single-shot 
cartridge has a slightly bottle-necked shell. 

The factory ammunition of both these cartridges gives slightly greater 
velocity than the factory .25-20 single-shot cartridge, but the difference. 



CARTRIDGES 



227 



is so small as to make practically no difference in the power and tra- 
jectory. I have never been able to obtain any satisfactory results 
from these cartridges with factory loads, which are furnished only 
with black powder and lead bullet. Either of these cartridges may be 
reloaded, using practically the same loads as in the case of the .25-20 
single-shot cartridge, increasing the powder charges slightly on account 
of the increased capacity of the shells, and very satisfactory results 
obtained. The .25-25 shell may be loaded with a charge of Du Pont 
military rifle powder No. 21, about 18.5 grains weight, so as to leave 
a small air space, and an 86-grain jacketed bullet, and quite a high 
velocity obtained, probably almost 2000 feet per second. In all cases 
where smokeless powder is used the primer should be a Remington-U. 
M. C. No. 1 or 1Y2, and the shell should be primed with 2 grains bulk 
of F. F. F. G. black powder in order to obviate the pitting of the 
barrel from the undiluted primer fouling. All the barrels for the 
Stevens Ideal rifles, to which these cartridges are adapted, are furnished 
only with the ordinary black powder steel. Observe the same prin- 
ciples in loading as in the case of the .25-20 single-shot cartridge. 



.25-35 WINCHESTER CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE 




This cartridge is adapted to the Winchester repeating rifle, Model 
1894, the Winchester single-shot rifle, and the Savage repeating rifle, 
Model 1899. The following is the data for the factory cartridge : 

Muzzle velocity 1,9/8 feet per second 

Velocity at 100 yards , 1.680 feet per second 

Velocity at 200 yards 1,420 feet per second 

Velocity at 300 yards M 18 feet per second 

Muzzle energy 1,017 foot pounds 

Energy at 100 yards 734 foot pounds 

Energy at 200 yards 516 foot pounds 

Energy at 300 yards 386 foot pounds 

100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 1.32 inches 

200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 6.21 inches 

300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 16.61 inches 

Penetration, soft point, v's-inch boards 11 boards 

Penetration, full patched, %-inch boards 36 boards 

Weight of bullet "7 grams 

Diameter of bullet 2 57 i nch 

Average groove diameter of barrels 257 inch 

Powder charge, Hercules lightning powder, about 18 grains 

Twist of rifling, one turn in 8 inches 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 32,000 to 34,000 



228 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



The following powder charges may also be used with either the 
regular 117-grain soft-point or full-jacketed bullet, or the 86-grain 
jacketed bullet of the .25-20 cartridge, the velocities and pressures 
being given for the former bullet : 



Powder 



Du Pont improved military rifle No. 16 
Du Pont improved military rifle No. 16 
Du Pont improved military rifle No. 18 
Du Pont military rifle powder No. 20. . 
Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21. . 



Weight 
grains 



Velocity, 
feet per 
second 



Pressure, 
pounds per 
square inch 



22.3 

25-5 
23-5 
22.5 
20.1 



1984 
2300 
2000 
2042 
1975 



26,000 
37,000 
35,ooo 
37,200 
34,000 



All the above powder charges, except the last, should be weighed 
and not measured. The last will measure very evenly in the Ideal 
Universal Powder Measure No. 5. Use Remington-U. M. C. No. 9 or 
U. S. Cartridge Co., No. 8 primers. If using the 86-grain bullet, seat 
only about Vs inch of the base of the bullet in the shell. 

For reduced load use the 86-grain, jacketed bullet for the .25-20 
cartridge, and about 10 grains weight of Du Pont gallery rifle powder 
No. 75. This makes a very nice load of about the power of the .25-20. 
Ideal gas-check bullet No. 257306 can also be used with about 17 grains 
weight of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21 as a midrange load, but 
is not quite as accurate as the jacketed bullet. There are a number of 
other Ideal bullets which can be used in this cartridge, for which see 
the " Ideal Handbook," but my experience has been that the 86-grain, 
jacketed bullet is very much more accurate, the twist of rifling in .25-35 
rifles being a little too rapid (8 inches) for alloy bullets. 

This is a very popular cartridge, and deservedly so. It is extremely 
accurate, perhaps the most accurate of all our sporting cartridges. It 
will give 5 to 6-inch groups right along at 200 yards in a good rifle. 
It is also a most excellent all-around cartridge where game larger than 
deer is not liable to be encountered. It makes a very nice little deer 
rifle, particularly when loaded with 25.5 grains of Du Pont improved 
military rifle powder No. 16, the velocity in this case being about 2300 
feet per second. The factory cartridge loaded with the full-patched 
bullet makes a fine turkey rifle and also for varmints such as coyote, 
fox, etc., particularly when it is desired not to ruin the meat or the 
skin. The 101 -grain, sharp-point, full-patched bullet for the .25 Rem- 
ington auto-cartridge can also be used with the same powder charge 
as for the 117-grain bullet, and fine target results obtained up to 500 
yards at least, or this bullet can be used with about 10 grains of Du 
Pont gallery rifle powder No. 75 and a very nice light charge obtained 



CARTRIDGES 229 

with which grouse and squirrels can be shot without ruining them 
for the table. If a Winchester single-shot rifle with No. 3 barrel be 
used, all these cartridges and loads will shoot with practically the 
same sight adjustment at 50 yards, making an ideal combination. I con- 
sider this the very best caliber for South American jungle hunting, 
and for the Eastern United States, where the largest game is deer, it is 
just the cartridge. 

I had a Winchester single-shot rifle with 14-inch twist chambered 
for this cartridge by Mr. A. O. Neidner. The chamber was cut quite 
tight, and it was intended to use only the 86-grain bullet. After ex- 
perimenting very extensively with it I found the most accurate charge 
to be 22 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 20, and 
the Winchester 86-grain, soft-point jacketed bullet. With this load 
the rifle gave groups at 100 yards averaging 1.77 inches. The rifle 
had a telescope sight mounted on top of the barrel, and with this sight 
the sight adjustment was exactly the same for 50 and 100 yards, making 
a most excellent combination for small game shooting at ranges beyond 
the capacity of the .25-20 cartridge. I have used this rifle with fine 
success, even on the small South American deer. It is an excellent 
woodchuck and turkey rifle, but is a little too powerful for squirrels 
and grouse. Strange to say, it does not shoot well with the 86-grain 
bullet if the velocity is reduced to that of the .25-20 cartridge, many 
of the bullets key-holing. I have never been able to work out a good 
reduced load for it due to this reason. This rifle has now been fired 
about 3000 rounds, and the barrel shows no signs of erosion or wear. 

.25-36 MARLIN CARTRIDGE 




This cartridge is very similar to the .25-35 Winchester cartridge, 
but the shell is a little different, and the two cartridges are not inter- 
changeable. Despite its name, the shell holds about two grains less 
powder than the .25-35, an d is slightly less powerful. It is adapted 
only to the Marlin repeating rifle, Model of 1893. The following are 
the details of the factory cartridge : 

Muzzle velocity 1,855 f eet per second 

Muzzle energy 893 foot pounds 

200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 7.38 inches 

300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 18.90 inches 

Penetration, soft point, %-inch boards 11 boards 

Penetration, full patched, %-inch boards 30 boards 



230 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Bullet, flat point, soft point or full patched 117 grains 

Powder charge, Hercules Lightning, about 16.5 grains 

Diameter of bullet 257 inch 

Average diameter of bore, to bottom of grooves.. .257 inch 

Twist of rifling, one turn in 9 inches 

Standard pressure pounds per square inch 30,000 to 32,000 

The bullet differs slightly from that of the .25-35 Winchester car- 
tridge, having a flat point, and being seated a little deeper in the shell. 
To obtain increased velocity with this cartridge it should be loaded 
with 25 grains weight of Du Pont improved military rifle powder 
No. 16 which will give 2250 feet per second velocity, with light chamber 
pressure. This powder charge should be weighed, not measured. The 
86-grain, jacketed bullet can be used for reduced loads with 10 grains 
weight of Du Pont gallery rifle powder No. 75, and good results ob- 
tained. This is a very accurate cartridge up to 200 yards. 

.25 REMINGTON AUTO-LOADING CARTRIDGE 




This cartridge is very similar to the .25-35 Winchester, and .25-36 
Marlin cartridges, except that it has a rimless shell, and contains 
several grains more powder. It is adapted to the Remington auto- 
loading rifle, the Remington slide action sporting rifle, and to the 
Stevens repeating rifle. It is regularly loaded by the factories with two 
types of bullet, one a 117-grain, blunt-nose, soft- or full-patched bullet, 
and the other a 101-grain, full-patched, sharp-point bullet. The data 
for the factory cartridge with these two types of bullets is as follows: 

117-GRAIN BULLET 

Muzzle velocity 2.127 feet per second 

Velocity at 100 yards 1,812 feet per second 

Velocity at 200 yards 1,535 f eet P er second 

Velocity at 300 yards 1,303 feet per second 

Muzzle energy 1,175 foot pounds 

Energy at 100 yards 854 foot pounds 

Energy at 200 yards • 608 foot pounds 

Energy at 300 yards 433 foot pounds 

200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 4.95 inches 

300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 13-77 inches 

Penetration, soft point, %-inch boards. . . : 11 boards 

Penetration, full patched, %-inch boards 44 boards 

Powder charge, Hercules Lightning, about 22 grains 

Diameter of bullet 257 inch 



CARTRIDGES 



231 



Groove diameter of Remington barrel 257 inch 

Twist of rifling, one turn in 10 inches 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 34,000 to 36,000 

101-GRAIN POINTED BULLET 

Muzzle velocity 2,330 feet per second 

Muzzle energy 1,286 foot pounds 

200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 3.98 inches 

300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 9.10 inches 

Powder charge, Du Pont M. R. P. No. 21, about. . 24.5 grains 

The following powder charges may also be used in this cartridge 
with good results : 

POWDER CHARGES FOR 117-GRAIN BULLET 



Powder 


Grains 
weight 


tvt , Pressure, 
M , uzz l e pounds per 
velocity square inch 


Du Pont military rifle powder No. 20 

Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21 

Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 18. 
Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 18. 
Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 16. 
Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 16. 


25- 

24.2 

20.3 

27-5 
24.6 
30. 


1857 
2100 
2125 
2350 
2Il8 

2534 


32,700 
36.500 
31,100 
39.30O 
22,880 
37.760 



POWDER CHARGES FOR 101-GRAIN POINTED BULLET 



Powder 



Grains 
weight 



Muzzle 
velocity 



Pressure, 
poundsper 
square inch 



Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 18. 
Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 16. 
Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 16. 




2600 
2369 
2753 



38,800 
23,080 
39.440 



With these charges the powder should be weighed and not meas- 
ured. Notice that some of the charges so greatly improve the ballistics 
of this cartridge as to put it in the very front rank of modern high- 
velocity cartridges, and this too with a very low breech pressure. Ideal 
gas check bullet No. 257325, no grains, may be used also with 18 
grains of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21. All the above loads 
will function the automatic action of this rifle perfectly. A very fine 
small game load consists of about 10 grains of Du Pont gallery rifle 
powder No. 75 and the 101-grain, jacketed, pointed bullet. This load 
will kill grouse and squirrels neatly without injuring the meat for the 
table, and is quite accurate, but it will not function the auto-loading 
feature, and it will be necessary to pull the bolt back by hand for 
each shot. 

This cartridge is a most excellent one. There has been a most 
fortunate combination of powder space, caliber, and weight of bullet. 
It is an extremely accurate cartridge, even at quite long range, and 



232 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



a most pleasant cartridge to shoot. For game, it is excellent for 
everything up to and including deer and black bear. Using the 101- 
grain, pointed bullet, it makes a splendid rifle for long-range shots at 
ducks and geese on the water, and is excellent for turkeys and such 
game. The full charged cartridge with the 117-grain, full-patched bul- 
let is excellent for foxes, coyotes, and other fur bearers, where it is 
particularly desired not to spoil the skins. 

.25O-3OOO SAVAGE CARTRIDGE 




This is a modern cartridge of extremely high velocity adapted to the 
Savage repeating rifle, Model 1899. The following is the data for the 
factory cartridge : 



Muzzle velocity 

Velocity at 100 yards 

Velocity at 200 yards 

Velocity at 300 yards 

Muzzle energy 

Energy at 100 yards 

Energy at 200 yards 

Energy at 300 yards 

100 yards trajectory height at 50 yards 

200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards . . . 
300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards .. 
Bullet, soft point, pointed, copper jacket... 

Diameter of bullet 

Groove diameter of bore, average 

Powder, Du Pont M. R. P. No. 21, about.. 

Twist of rifling, one turn in 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch. 



3,000 feet per second 
2,657 feet per second 
2,340 feet per second 
2,042 feet per second 
1,740 foot pounds 
x ,375 foot pounds 
1,061 foot pounds 
783 foot pounds 
.4 inch 
2.5 inches 
6.^ inches 
87 grains 
.257 inch 
.257 inch 
30.5 grains 
14 inches 
50,000 to 55,000 



The following powder charges can also be used in this cartridge with 
good results: 







Velocity, 


Pressure, 


Powder 


Grains 


feet per 


pounds per 




weight 


second 


square inch 


Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 16. 


357 


2930 


31,240 


Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 16. 


38 


3IOO 




Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 16. 


40 


336l 


52,200* 


Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 18. 


36 . 


3IOO 


46,500 


Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 18. 


37-5 


3l8o 


50,200 



* This is the maximum load and should be used only in new rifles or those in 
excellent condition. 

The above powder charges should always be carefully weighed, not 

measured. Only the regular 87-grain, Savage, pointed bullet should 

be used. 



CARTRIDGES 233 

For reduced loads I would recommend that either Du Pont gallery 
rifle powder No. 75 or Du Pont sporting rifle powder No. 80 be 
tried. About 10 grains weight of the former and twelve grains weight 
of the latter should be about correct. For bullets, use either the 
regular 87-grain, jacketed bullet, the 86-grain, jacketed bullet for the 
.25-20 cartridge, or Ideal gas-check bullet No. 257312, the latter sized 
to about .258 inch. I have obtained excellent results with 10 grains 
of No. 75 powder and the regular 87-grain, jacketed bullet as detailed 
below. 

I conducted the initial range tests of this cartridge a few months 
prior to its being placed on the market by the Savage Arms Company. 
The rifle was a regular stock rifle equipped with a Lyman No. 30^ 
wind gauge rear sight, and a Lyman gold bead front sight. Rifle shot 
from my concrete base muzzle and elbow rest. Ten groups of ten 
shots each were fired at 100 yards for accuracy with Savage factory, 
full-charged cartridges, which at that time were loaded with 32 
grains of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21, and the 87-grain, soft- 
point, jacketed, spitzer bullet. The smallest group measured 1.40 
inches, the largest 4.12 inches, average 2.96 inches. Measurements 
were from center to center of shot holes farthest apart. These tests 
were made with the bullets dry; that is, Mobilubricant was not used. 
After this firing of no rounds during an afternoon no metal fouling 
at all was visible. Cleaning with the ammonia metal fouling solution 
gave, of course, the usual blue color, showing that there was a thin, 
invisible coating of copper fouling. From subsequent shooting it may 
be said that this cartridge will not metal foul in lumps if the bore is 
taken care of. There are very few other purely sporting rifles which 
will show as good accuracy as this, especially in view of the short, 
light barrel. 

Experiments were than undertaken to find a suitable reduced load 
for use on small game, for the explosive effect of the full charge will 
literally blow up anything from coyotes down. The regular 87-grain, 
soft-point bullet was used, and the best charge was found to be 10 
grains weight of Du Pont gallery rifle powder No. 75 primed with U. S. 
C. Co. No. 8 primer, the cartridge being exactly the same as the full- 
charged, factory cartridge with the exception of the powder charge. 
This is an excellent load and shoots with all the accuracy of the .22- 
long rifle cartridge. Ten groups of ten shots each were fired for 
accuracy at 50 yards from the muzzle and elbow rest, the smallest 
measuring .95 inch, the largest 1.90 inches, average 1.42 inches. It 



234 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

was found that for reduced loads it was best to use new shells, or 
shells that had been fired with reduced loads only. In all lever-action 
rifles, which do not have the breech bolt supported by lugs at the head, 
as in the case of bolt actions, there is quite a little elastic spring in the 
action when fired with cartridges giving pressures around 50,000 pounds 
per square inch. Shells fired with the full charge are expanded and 
lengthened, so that if reloaded it is rather difficult to close the bolt. 
They can be used, but rapid fire with them is out of the question. 
Shells lengthened in this way can hardly be resized with hand tools. 
The lengthening is all over and not simply in the neck. 

For the high-power load, the Lyman sight on the rifle required set- 
ting at 3 points elevation, and zero for wind. The point of impact at 
100 yards was one inch above the point of aim. With the reduced load 
of 10 grains of No. 75 powder the sight was adjusted to 5H points ele- 
vation, and 1Y2 points right windage, giving a point of impact at 50 yards 
% inch above the point of aim. 

With the No. 30% Lyman rear sight on the Savage .250-3000 rifle, 
changing the elevation one point or graduation will move the point of 
impact 6.15 inches at 100 yards, and a similar change of 1 point in 
windage will cause a change in point of impact of 2.46 inches at 100 
yards. 

This is a most excellent cartridge for all game up to, and including, 
deer, and mountain sheep. With the full-charged factory cartridge it 
is much too powerful for all small game, but, as will be seen above, 
it can be loaded by the rifleman to give fine results on all small game. 
It has an extremely flat trajectory and excellent accuracy, making sure 
hits at long range an easy matter. For all except the very largest game 
it is hard to imagine a better arm than the rifle adapted to this car- 
tridge, especially when a light weapon is desired. 

.256 NEWTON HIGH-POWER CARTRIDGE 



,256 NEWTON 



This is a cartridge of very high velocity adapted to the Newton 
high-power sporting rifle. The manufacturers advertise it loaded with 
two weights of bullets, 123 grains, and 140 grains. Up to the time 
of going to press no 140-grain bullets have been placed on the market 
and the data regarding them is entirely theoretical. The ballistic data 



CARTRIDGES 



235 



for the cartridge loaded with the 123-grain bullet, as given by the 
Newton Arms Company, is as follows : 

Weight of bullet 123 grains 

Muzzle velocity 3,103 feet per second 

Velocity at 100 yards 2,891 feet per second 

Velocity at 200 yards 2,689 feet per second 

Velocity at 300 yards 2,495 feet per second 

Muzzle energy 2,632 foot pounds 

Energy at 100 yards 2,288 foot pounds 

Energy at 200 yards 1,980 foot pounds 

Energy at 300 yards 1,709 foot pounds 

Diameter of bullet 264 inch 

Bore diameter of barrel 256 inch 

Groove diameter of barrel 268 inch 

Twist of rifling, one turn in 10 inches 

Powder charge, Du Pont No. 10 or No. 15 46 grains 

Powder charge, Du Pont No. 20 42 grains 

100 yards trajectory, height at 50 yards 48 inch 

200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 2.08 inches 

300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 5.00 inches 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 55,000 to 58,000 

The above velocities were calculated for a 30-inch barrel. The standard 
24-inch barrel of the Newton rifle will give about 100 feet per second 
less velocity than these. The powder charges above are subject to 
change, the charges having not been definitely decided upon at the time 
of going to print. In fact the cartridge may still be said to be in the 
experimental stage to a certain extent, the Great War, and the conse- 
quent difficulty in procuring materials, having considerably upset the 
plans of the Newton Arms Company relative to standardizing on any 
one product. At present it looks as though this cartridge will ultimately 
be furnished with a 129-grain bullet. The most recent reliable ballistic 
data on this cartridge was determined with this 129-grain bullet in a 
24-inch barrel as follows : 



Powder 


Grains 
weight 


Muzzle velocity, Pressure. 

feet per second pounds per 

r square inch 


Du Pont No. IO 

Du Pont No. 13 

Du Pont No. 15 

Du Pont No. 20 


48 
54 
480 
44 


2,863 

2,975 
2,875 
2J57 


54,260 
56,200 
54,960 
53.88o 



The .256 Newton cartridge is a particularly efficient load for large 
game, especially at long range. The trajectory is exceedingly flat, in 
fact flatter than any other commercial cartridge, and the expanding, 
pointed bullet has an explosive effect on animal tissue, making very 
deadly wounds. It will give good results on all American game. 

My own test of this cartridge for accuracy was made in April, 1918, 
on my experimental range, regular muzzle rest, 100 yards. One group 



236 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

fired with regular Newton factory ammunition procured in the fall 
of 191 7 gave a measurement of 3.60 inches. Two groups fired under 
similar conditions with ammunition reloaded with 52.5 grains of Du 
Pont improved military rifle powder No. 13, and Newton 129-grain bul- 
let, gave measurements of 4.80 and 5.18 inches. All groups were ten 
shots. Rifle equipped with telescope sight. 

.28-30-120 STEVENS CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE 

This is a low-power, black-powder cartridge adapted to the Stevens 
Ideal rifle, and to Pope rifles chambered for it. 

DATA FOR FACTORY CARTRIDGE 

Muzzle velocity 1,405 feet per second 

Muzzle energy 526 foot pounds 

200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 32.81 inches 

Penetration, lead bullet, %-inch pine boards 10 boards 

Bullet, lead, temper 1 to 32 120 grains 

Diameter of bullet 285 inch 

Powder charge, F. G. black powder 30 grains 

Primer, Remington — U. M. C. No. 2V2 brass 

Twist of rifling, Stevens Ideal, one turn in 14 inches 

This cartridge was designed by Mr. Charles H. Herrick for the 
Stevens Company in answer to a demand for a cartridge a little more 
powerful than the .25-caliber cartridges, but not quite as large as the 
.32-40, so that it could be used satisfactorily for deer, small game, or 
200-yard target shooting. It was designed to cut down some of the 
expense, etc., of 200-yard target shooting by employing less powder 
and lead, and at the same time getting a higher velocity. The shell is 
straight inside, and has just sufficient taper outside to permit of easy 
extraction. The shell is one of the best made on the market, very much 
like an everlasting shell, and will stand almost unlimited reloading. 
The cartridge represents the highest development of the black powder 
days. It is an odd size, and never became very popular except with 
rifle cranks. It is an excellent cartridge where a medium caliber, low- 
power rifle is desired for Eastern game and target shooting. It seems 
to do its best work with about 30 grains of C. G. semi-smokeless pow- 
der, and a 120-grain bullet cast about 1 part of tin to 32 parts of lead. 
As with all small caliber, black-powder rifles, the rifleman will have 
to experiment a little with different amounts and lots of powder, and 
different tempers of bullet in order to get the best results. The regular 
bullet is the same as the Ideal bullet No. 285221. Ideal bullet No. 
285222 is the same except that it has a sharp point, and with it and a 
slightly smaller powder charge squirrels and grouse can be killed 



CARTRIDGES 237 

neatly without mangling. Low-pressure, bulk smokeless powder may 
also be used in this cartridge, but the bullet should be of a harder 
temper. If smokeless powder is used it should always be with the reg- 
ular No. 2Y2 black powder primer, and a priming charge of about 3 
grains of F. F. F. G. black powder, as the smokeless primer is very 
liable to pit the barrel badly. 

.280 ROSS CARTRIDGE 




This cartridge is adapted to the Ross Model 10 straight pull sporting 
rifle, and Ross long-range target rifle. Two types of cartridges are 
made, one with a light expanding bullet for sporting use, and the other 
with a long, heavy full jacketed bullet for long range match shooting. 
The following is the data for the factory sporting cartridge : 

Muzzle velocity 3.050 feet per second 

Velocity at 100 yards 2,837 feet per second 

Velocity at 200 yards 2,635 feet per second 

Velocity at 300 yards 2,441 feet per second 

Muzzle energy 3,002 foot pounds 

Energy at 100 yards 2,710 foot pounds 

Energy at 200 yards 2,2_|7 foot pounds 

Energy at 300 yards 1,929 foot pounds 

200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards 2.20 inches 

300 yard trajectory, height at 150 yards 5.25 inches 

500 yard trajectory, height at 250 yards 17.00 inches 

Bullet, copper tube expanding, jacketed 143 grains 

Diameter of bullet 287 inch 

Groove diameter of Ross barrel 289 inch 

Powder charge, Du Pont military rifle No. 10... 58.8 gains 

Chamber pressure, pounds per square inch 53.500 

Twist of rifling, one turn in 83 *s inches 

This cartridge may also be loaded with the 143 -grain bullet and 60 
grains weight of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 15 to give a velocity 
of 3300 feet per second with a chamber pressure of 55,470 pounds per 
square inch. This is the maximum charge that should be used. 
Charges of Du Pont No. 10 and 15 powder should always be weighed 
on scales, and not measured. 

For a reduced load the Ideal Manufacturing Company recommend 
Ideal gas check bullet No. 291379, cast of No. 1 bullet metal, and sized 
to .291 inch, with a charge of 30 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle 
powder No, 21, or 25.2 grains weight of Du Pont sporting rifle powder 



238 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

No. 80. I have tried this load but did not find it satisfactory. The 
smallest group fired at 50 yards measured 2.90 inches, and some groups 
at this distance were as -large as 10 inches. Shells that had previously 
been fired with the regular factory charge were used, and they were 
exceedingly hard to insert in the chamber and to extract, due to' the 
body of the shell having been expanded to above size. Probably better 
results could have been secured with new shells, but I was unable to 
procure these. I would recommend trying this bullet with much lighter 
charges, say I2 V 2 grains of Du Pont No. 80; or 18 grains of Du Pont 
No. 18; or 12 grains of Du Pont No. 75. 

The factory cartridge is an excellent one ballistically, combining a 
bullet with a very satisfactory coefficient, and a flat trajectory. 
Twenty-eight caliber is theoretically the most effective caliber ballisti- 
cally for a rifle, because a bullet with an extremely effective ballastic 
coefficient can be used in this caliber without running the recoil up to 
such an extent that it is not satisfactory for military purposes. But the 
.280 Ross rifle does not seem to handle this cartridge very well. The 
accuracy is not good. I have heard of a few rifles which would give 8- 
inch groups with this cartridge at 200 yards, but I have personally 
never seen one. Two. rifles of this caliber which I have owned would 
give about 12-inch groups at 200 yards when shot from my concrete 
base muzzle and elbow rest, or prone with either target sights or a 
telescope sight. Also Dr. Mann obtained two selected .280 sporting 
barrels for testing, and upon placing them on his " V " rest found 
that the best groups that they would give average 7 inches at 100 
yards. The trouble seems to be in the size of the neck of the cham- 
ber and the groove diameter of the barrel. The bullet is .002 inches 
smaller than the groove diameter of the barrel, and the chamber is 
about .004-inch larger at the neck than the neck of the unfired car- 
tridge. As will be seen in the chapter on Accuracy, good shooting can- 
not be expected from such an arrangement. It seems a pity that a 
more accurate barrel is not obtainable for this excellent cartridge. 

The following are the ballistics of the .280 match cartridge : 

DATA FOR FACTORY CARTRIDGE 

Muzzle velocity 2.700 feet per second 

Muzzle energy 2.834 foot pounds 

Weight of bullet 180 grains 

Angle of elevation, 100 yards 1.34 minutes 

Angle of elevation, 200 yards 3-*5 minutes 

Angle of elevation 500 yards 9.35 minutes 

Angle of elevation 600 yards 12.12 minutes 

Angle of elevation, 800 yards 18.27 minutes 



CARTRIDGES 239 

Angle of elevation, 1,000 yards 26.28 minutes 

Powder charge, Du Pont military rirle No. 10. . . . 53.5 grains 
Chamber pressure, pounds per square inch 51,070 

Despite the discrepancy between the diameters of barrel and bullet, 
and the large chamber, this cartridge is very accurate in Ross long- 
range match barrels. It seems to be a case where the inertia of the long, 
heavy bullet seems to cause prompt upsetting of the bullet to fill the 
bore without undue deformation of the bullet. The match barrels are 
throated out a little more than the sporting barrels to receive this 
cartridge, and this cartridge is so long that it cannot be worked 
through the magazine, the match rifle being a single shot only, although 
with practically the same action as the sporting rifle. Ross match rifles 
for the .280 cartridge are very popular in England for long range 
match shooting, and have won many matches with very high scores. 
Wind probably has less effect on the flight of this bullet than is the case 
with any other cartridge made. 

.30 WINCHESTER CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE 
.30 REMINGTON-U. M. C. AUTO-LO/\DING CARTRIDGE 




Commonly known as the .30-30 cartridge. These two cartridges are 
practically identical, except that one has a rimmed shell, and the other, 
the .30 Remington, has a rimless shell. The ballistics, powder charge, 
and bullet are exactly the same. The .30 Winchester cartridge is 
adapted to a great number of American rifles, the principal being the 
Winchester Model 1894 repeating rifle. It was this rifle that made 
the .30-30 cartridge famous and popular. The .30 Remington car- 
tridge is adapted to the Remington auto-loading rifle, the Remington 
slide-action sporting rifle, and to the Stevens high-power repeating 
rifle. The ballistic data for the factory cartridge, and for rifles adapted 
to it is as follows : 



240 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Muzzle velocity 2,008 feet per second 

Velocity at 100 yards . 1.735 feet per second 

Velocity at 200 yards 1,493 feet per second 

Velocity at 300 yards 1,290 feet per second 

Muzzle energy 1,522 foot pounds 

Energy at 100 yards 1,136 foot pounds 

Energy at 200 yards 850 foot pounds 

Energy at 300 yards 629 foot pounds 

100 yards trajectory, height at 50 yards 1.28 inches 

200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 5.79 inches 

300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards . 15.23 inches 

Penetration, soft point hullet, %-inch boards.... 1 1 boards 

Penetration, full patch bullet, %-inch boards 42 boards 

Bullet, jacketed, soft point or full patched 170 grains* 

Diameter of bullet 305 inch 

Groove diameter of barrel, Winchester, about... .308 inch 

Groove diameter of barrel, Remington, about 307 inch 

Twist of rifling, one turn in 12 inches 

Powder charge, Hercules Lightning, about 26 grains 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 36,0001039,000 

* The Remington — U. M. C. full-jacketed bullet weighs 160 grains. 

The Remington-U. M. C. Co. also makes a cartridge for the .30 
Remington rifle loaded with a 157-grain, full- jacketed, pointed bullet 
for which the following is the data : 

Muzzle velocity 2,150 feet per second 

Muzzle energy 1,610 footpounds 

200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards. 5.25 inches 

300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 14.45 inches 

This cartridge can be reloaded with the following powder charges, 
using the 170-grain, jacketed bullet: 

Powder Grains | Velocity | Pressure 

Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21 26.4 2000 | 36,500 

Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 18. 29.3 2010 32,900 

Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 16. 28.2 2003 26,500 

Du Pont improved mil. rifle powder No. 16. 33. 2305 1 39,120 

All the above charges except the first should be weighed, not measured. 

The following reduced loads will work well in this cartridge : 

Ideal bullet No. 308291 W, cast of Ideal alloy, and sized to .308 inch. 
24 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21. No. 9 
Remington-U. M. C, or No. 8 U. S. C. Co. primer. This makes 
a very nice medium load, and it will kill such game as coyotes and foxes 
neatly without hurting the skins. It is also an economical load for 
ordinary target practice. 

Ideal bullet No. 308241 W, cast of No. 2 Ideal bullet metal, or of 1 
part of tin to 10 parts of lead, and sized to .308 inch. Ten grains 
weight of Du Pont gallery powder No. 75. No. 9 Remington-U. M. 
C. or No. 8 U. S. C. Co. primer. This is a very good short-range 



CARTRIDGES 



241 



load, although it will not operate the auto-loading feature of the Rem- 
ington auto-loading rifle, and that arm will have to be operated by- 
pulling the breech bolt to the rear by hand for each shot. It is quite 
accurate up to 200 yards. At 100 yards it will keep all shots inside a 
4-inch circle. It is a fine short range load, and it will kill small game 
neatly, grouse being killed without ruining the meat for the table. 

The .30-30 is a very popular cartridge, particularly among pro- 
fessional hunters and trappers, and all through Northern Canada. 
Its popularity is due to several things. The .30-30 was the first high- 
power rifle to be placed on the American market in any quantity, and 
it at once became very popular. Both the rifle and ammuntion are 
cheap, and can be procured anywhere. This cartridge is a fine one for 
game up to, and including, deer and black bear. It is used for all 
game on this continent, but on the larger game it will seldom kill neatly 
with one shot, as all cartridges should. It is quite accurate, and at 200 
yards the factory cartridge in a good rifle should keep all its shots in 
about a 7-inch circle. In view of many more modern cartridges hav- 
ing been introduced since this cartridge made its appearance, it cannot 
be recommended for the sportsman who is about to purchase a new 
rifle except for use in Northern Canada, particularly in the Hudson 
Bay and Mackenzie River regions, where the trading posts carry no 
other kind of high-power rifle ammunition. 

The following trajectory table will be of considerable use to the 
hunter using this and similar cartridges. Figures with the minus sign 
in front indicate that the shot will strike that amount below the point 
of aim. 

TRAJECTORY TABLE. .30^30 CARTRIDGE 
170-grain bullet. Velocity 2,008 feet per second 



Height of 




Kanj, 


e sighted to. in yards 




curve ai: 


75 


100 


'3<J 


200 


300 


25 yards 


0.6 inches 


0.9 inches 


1.6 inches 


2.4 inches 




50 yards 


0.6 inches 


1.2 inches 


2.6 inches 


4.2 inches 


7.J inches 


75 yards 


inches 


1.0 inches 


3.0 inches 


5.4 inches 




ico yards 


-2.2 inches 


inches 


2.8 inches 


5.9 inches 


12.9 inches 


125 yards 


-;.o inches 


-2.9 inches 


1.8 inches 


5.6 inches 




1 50 yards 


-8.7 inches 


-6.5 inches 


inches 


4.6 inches 


15.2 inches 


175 yards 




-11.0 inches 


-4.5 inches 


2.8 inches 




2CO yards 




-16.5 inches 


-9.9 inches 


inches 


14.2 inches 


225 yards 






-16.3 inches 


-6.4 inches 




250 yards 






-23.7 inches 


-13.8 inches 


19.2 inches 


300 yards 








-31.8 inches 


inches 


350 yards 








-55.8 inches 


-23.5 inches 


400 yards 










-53.5 inches 



242 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

.303 SAVAGE CARTRIDGE 




This cartridge is adapted to the Savage repeating rifle Model 1899. 
It is somewhat like the .30-30 cartridge in appearance and ballistics, 
although it carries a slightly heavier bullet. The weight of the bullet 
differs with various ammunition companies producing this cartridge. 
As loaded by the Savage Arms Company it weighs 180 grains in the 
full-jacketed, and 190 grains in the soft-nose, variety. With the 
Winchester make both bullets weigh 190 grains. With Remington-U. 
M. C. ammunition the soft-nose bullet weighs. 195 grains and the full- 
jacketed bullet 182 grains. The data for the Remington-U. M. C. 
factory cartridge with 195-grain, soft-point bullet is as follows : 

Muzzle velocity 1,952 feet per second 

Muzzle energy 1,658 foot pounds 

200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 5.98 inches 

300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 15.60 inches 

Penetration, %-inch pine boards 11 boards 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 43,000 

The bullets average .311 inch in diameter, and the Savage barrels 
average about .308 inches. The Savage rifles for the .303 Savage car- 
tridge and also for the .30-30 Winchester cartridge are bored and 
rifled exactly alike ; that is, to a standard .308-inch grove measurement, 
but are of course chambered differently. The Winchester Company 
uses Hercules W. A., 30-caliber powder in loading their cartridges, 
the Remington-U. M. C. Company uses Hercules Lightning, while the 
Savage Arms Company uses about 28.5 grains of Du Pont military rifle 
powder No. 21. It is not possible to obtain higher velocities than 
about 2000 feet per second with this cartridge, owing to the fact that 
the small powder space in the shell, the relatively heavy bullet, and 
the super size of the bullet run the chamber pressure up too high for 
the action. Du Pont No. 21 powder is therefore recommended for 
this cartridge, and should not be used in charges heavier than 29 
grains. 

An excellent reduced load for this cartridge consists of Ideal bullet 
No. 308241 S, cast of Ideal No. 2 bullet metal, or 1 part of tin to 10 
parts of load, and sized to .311 inch. Ten grains weight of Du Pont 
gallery rifle powder No. 75. U. S. C. Co. primer No. 8. This load 



CARTRIDGES 243 

will keep in a 4-inch circle at 100 yards, and is an excellent load up to 
200 yards for target shooting or small game. It will kill grouse neatly 
without spoiling the meat for the table. 

2* • * 



H 



'* 



1 2 

S. S. 

Fig. 71 

Groups fired with .303 Savage rifle, Lyman sights, muzzle and elbow rest. 

No. I. 10 shots, 50 yards, Remington-U. M. C. ammunition, soft-point bullet. 

No. 2. 10 shots, 50 yards, Ideal bullet No. 308241-S, 10 grains of Du Pont 

gallery rifle powder No. 75. Both groups exact size. 

Ideal bullet No. 308291 S can also be used when cast of Ideal No. 1 
bullet metal, and sized to .311 inches, with 23 grains weight of Du 
Pont military rifle powder No. 21. This is quite a powerful load, but 
the bullet does not expand on animal tissue, so that while it will kill 
coyotes, foxes, and turkeys neatly it will not blow them to pieces as 
does the full-charged factory load. It is quite an accurate load up to 
500 yards. 

The factory cartridge is quite accurate, groups as small as 5 inches 
have been obtained on my muzzle and elbow rest at 200 yards, and the 
200-yard average is about 6 inches. Sometimes, however, the rifle does 
not seem to hold its elevation well until it has become well heated 
up by firing, due perhaps to the oversize of the bullet which is about 
.003 inch larger than the groove diameter of the bore. 

This cartridge is very satisfactory for all but the very largest game. 
It is a considerably better killing cartridge than the .30-30, probably 
because the heavier bullet is a better bone smasher. Mr. W. G. C. Man- 
son of Lillooet, British Columbia, has used this cartridge for years 
for large game, and in fact was almost the first man to use it in the 
field. He told me that when he first received his rifle he took it into 
the mountains with him on a hunt, and the first box of 20 cartridges 
accounted for 18 head of large game, including 2 grizzlies. The car- 
tridge is a good one, but is of course considerably outclassed by a num- 
ber of more modern cartridges. 



244 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

.30-CALIBER U. S. MODEL 1898 CARTRIDGE 




This cartridge is also known as the .30 Krag, and the .30-40. It 
is called the .30 Government cartridge by the Winchester Company. 
It is adapted to the United States magazine rifle, Model 1898 (Krag), 
and to the Winchester repeating rifle, Model 1895, and Winchester 

TABLE OF REMAINING VELOCITIES AND ENERGIES 



Range 



Muzzle . . 
100 yards 
200 yards 
300 yards 
400 yards 
500 yards 
600 yards 
700 yards 
800 yards 
Qoo yards 
1,000 yards 



Velocity, 
feet per second 



Energy, 
foot pounds 



2,00; 


1,972 


1,783 


1,553 


1.590 


1,235 


1,418 


985 


1,265 


782 


1,138 


633 


1,044 


533 


978 


467 


923 


.416 


874 


373 


831 


337 



ORDIXATES OF TRAJECTORY 



Horizontal 

distance, 

yards 




Height of trajectory above line of sight at: 






100 

yards, 

feet 


200 

yards, 

feet 


300 

yards, 
feet 


400 

yards, 
feet 


Soo 

yards, 
feet 


600 

yards, 

feet 


700 

yards, 
feet 


IOO 

















2O0 


O.46 















300 
400 
500 
60O 


0-99 
I.62 
2.36 
3.23 


1.07 
2.32 
3.82 

5-54 


O 

1.88 
4.12 
6.70 


O 

2.Q8 
6-43 


O 

4-31 


O 




7O0 


4.22 


7-53 


9.69 


IO.42 


9.30 


5-99 


O 



ANGLES OF ELEVATION 
Found by experimental firing with Krag. 



Range 


Angle of elevation 


Range 


Angle of Elevation 


100 j'ards 


4.5 minutes 


600 yards 


41.2 minutes 


200 yards 


9.7 minutes 


700 yards 


52.9 minutes 


300 yards 


15.8 minutes 


800 yards 


65.8 minutes 


400 vards 


23.0 minutes 


900 vards 


80.1 minutes 


500 yards 


31.6 minutes 


1,000 yards 


96.0 minutes 



CARTRIDGES 245 

Chamber pressure, about •. 38,000 pounds per square inch 

Maximum range at 44 degrees elevation 4,06b yardi: 

Groove diameter of barrel, about 308 inch 

Diameter of bullet 308 inch 

Powder charge, Hercules W. A., 30 caliber, about 35 grains 

Twist of rifling, one turn in 10 inches 

Penetration, soft point bullet, ^s-inch boards 1-3 boards 

Penetration, full jacketed bullet, 7 '6-inch boards. 58 boards 

Weight of complete cartridge, about. 439 grains 

single-shot rifle. The following are the data for the regular factory 
and government cartridge, containing the 220-grain, blunt-point, full- 
jacketed or soft-point bullet: 

This cartridge is also loaded by the various ammunition companies 
with the following loads : 

By the Remington-U. M. C. Co. : 

Metal cased, pointed bullet weighing 172 grains, giving a velocity of 
about 2400 feet per second. An excellent long range target load. 

Umbrella metal-cased bullet weighing 180 grains, having a muzzle 
velocity of 2320 feet per second, and a muzzle energy of 2150 foot 
pounds. This bullet expands well on large game, and the load is an 
excellent one for all but the very largest game. The velocity is not 
quite large enough to give that explosive effect seen in the 1906 cart- 
ridge, but it will kill well and has a very flat trajectory. The height 
of the trajectory at 100 yards when the rifle is sighted for 200 yards is 
only 3.56 inches. 

By the Winchester Repeating Arms Co. : 

Metal-cased, pointed bullet weighing 180 grains, giving a velocity of 
about 2300 feet per second. This is an excellent long range target load. 

The following mid- and short-range loads can be recommended : 

Ideal gas-check bullets Nos. 308284 or 308334, cast of Ideal bullet 
metal No. 1, and sized to .311 inch. 25.4 grains of Du Pont military 
rifle powder No. 21. Rem.-U. M. C. Co. No. 9 or U. S. C. Co. No. 8 
primers. Muzzle velocity 1725 feet per second. Pressure, 24,540 
pounds per square inch. 

Ideal bullet No. 308241 S, cast of Ideal bullet metal No. 2, or of 1 
part of tin to 10 parts of lead, and sized to .311 inch. Twelve grains 
weight of Du Pont gallery rifle powder No. 7$. Same primers as above. 
Muzzle velocity, 1400 feet per second. Pressure, 25,000 pounds per 
square inch. 

The 150-grain, full-jacketed service bullet of 150 grains used in the 
.30-caliber Model 1906 cartridge. Fifteen grains weight of Du Pont 
gallery rifle powder No. 75. Same primers as above. Muzzle veloc- 
ity, 1500 feet per second. 



246 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



The first two loads worked well, and are very accurate in the United 
States Magazine rifle, caliber .30, Model of 1898, but will not work 
satisfactorily in the Winchester rifles, as a rule, because the Winchester 
rifles are chambered tighter than the government arm, and the chamber 
will not admit of seating shells containing bullets measuring .311 inch 
without using undue force to seat the cartridge. These bullets do not 
give accurate results if made much smaller than .311 inch. The last 
load is a most excellent one for small game shooting. I have used 
it for many years for this purpose with the best results. It kills all 
kinds of small game neatly. I have shot otter, beaver, coyotes, 
monkeys, coati-mundi, agouti, sloth, squirrels, grouse, etc., with it, 
and it has killed almost instantly, and yet the pelts have not been 
ruined and the meat has not been all mashed to pieces. With this 
load, and the full-charged soft-point cartridge the hunter is prepared 
for all kinds of game. 

The .30-40 cartridge can also be loaded with the following bullets 
and powders to give the results as indicated : 



Bullet, 

grains Powder 

weight 


Grains 
weight 


Velocity, 
feet per 
second 


Pressure, 
pounds per 
square inch 


220 Hercules, W. A., .30-caliber powder... 
220 Du Pont improved military rifle No. 15 

220 Du Pont military rifle No. 20 

190 Du Pont military rifle No. 20 

180 Du Pont military rifle No. 20 

172 Du Pont military rifle No. 20 

150 Du Pont military rifle No. 20 

150 Du Pont militarv rifle No. 20 

220 Du Pont military rifle No. 21 

220 Du Pont improved military rifle No. 18 
220 Du Pont improved military rifle No. 18 
190 Du Pont improved military rifle No. 18 
172 Du Pont improved military rifle No. 18 
150 Du Pont improved military rifle No. 18 
150 Du Pont improved military rifle No. 16 
170 Du Pont improved military rifle No. 16 
190 Du Pont improved military rifle No. 16 
220 Du Pont improved military rifle No. 16 
220 Du Pont improved military rifle No. 16 


36.2 

36.5 

37-5 

37-5 

37-5 

37-5 

37-5 

43-5 

33-2 

36.5 

39- 

40. 

42. 

44-5 

45-5 

43-5 

41. 

35-3 

40. 


2,100 
1,969 

2,139 
2,212 

2,244 
2,293 
2,356 
2,70O 
2.025 
2.005 
2,l6o 
2,400 
2,50O 
2,7O0 
2,830 
2,636 

2,435 
2,001 
2,232 


40,000 

44,200 x 

40,600 

40,200 

36,900 

31,300 

46,000 l 

39,400 

36,140 

43,300 1 

43,800 x 

43,340 

44,600 x 

42,300 

41,480 

41,400 

32,140 

41,740 



1 These loads should not be used in the United States magazine rifle, caliber 
.30, Model 1898 (Krag), but are safe in Winchester rifles that are in first-class 
condition. Cartridges giving pressures greater than 43,000 pounds per square 
inch should not be used in the Krag rifle. 

The first-mentioned load above was for many years the favorite 
load for long-range target shooting at the various national matches 
throughout the country. It gives excellent results at 1000 yards, but it 
is now outclassed entirely by the pointed bullets of 172, 180 and 190 
grains, as the latter, while just as accurate, are very much less influenced 



CARTRIDGES 247 

by the wind. An excellent load for long range target shooting is the 
172-grain Remington-U. M. C, full- jacketed, pointed bullet and 43.5 
grains of Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 16, giving a 
velocity of 2600 feet per second, with a pressure of only 41,500 pounds 
per square inch. For big game shooting the best loads are the 220- 
grain, soft-nose bullet and 40 grains weight of Du Pont No. 16 powder 
for heavy game like moose and elk, where a bone smashing bullet 
is desired, and the 180-grain Remington-U. M. C. umbrella bullet 
(sharp point) and 41.5 grains of Du Pont No. 16 powder, giving 
a velocity of about 2500 feet per second, with a pressure of about 
41,500 pounds for sheep, goats, deer, and all game shot at long range. 

I regard the .30-40 cartridge as the most useful and all around 
successful cartridge ever made for the American sportsman. It is an 
excellent target cartridge at short, mid, or long range. It is excellent 
for both large and small game. While, with the ordinary factory 
loads, it is not quite large enough for the largest game, as it will not 
stand the test of giving a percentage of even 50 per cent, clean kills 
with the first shot, yet, with the two big game loads mentioned above, 
it will almost invariably kill any American game cleanly and quickly. 
This used to be a very popular big game cartridge among American 
sportsmen, and it was easily the most popular rifle in the Rocky 
Mountain country and in Alaska twelve years ago. Of late years 
it lost its popularity, due to the introduction of rifles of much higher 
velocity. With the introduction lately of the No. 16 Du Pont powder, 
which greatly increases the velocity and ballistic efficiency of this 
cartridge, it should come into its own again. The recoil is light, and 
moreover the rifleman is not troubled with metal fouling to such a 
degree as he is with rifles of very high intensity like the .30-caliber 
Model 1906. 

This cartridge makes an excellent all-around one for both large 
and small game. For an all-around rifle to handle it I would recom- 
mend the Winchester Model 1895, particularly if it be made to order 
with a 24-inch barrel of the same weight and outside dimensions as 
the .405 barrel regularly made for this rifle. The Krag rifle is not 
such a good all-around arm as the Winchester, entirely because the 
reduced loads require a different windage adjustment from the full- 
charged loads, and when game is in sight it takes entirely too long 
to change loads, elevation, and windage. With the short, stiff barrel 
of the Winchester rifle mentioned above there is very little difference 
between the 200-yard, full-load sight adjustment, and the 50-yard, 
short-range load adjustment, and practically no difference in the 



248 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



windage adjustment of the two loads. This makes the change from 
one load to another very easy and quick. 

For many years I have used a Winchester single-shot rifle for this 
cartridge. It has a 27-inch, No. 3 round barrel, and weighs 9 pounds 
(see Fig. 8). While it is a single shot, and quite heavy for a hunting 
rifle, yet it is so thoroughly reliable that I have used it on a number 
of hunting trips, particularly in British Columbia, California, and the 
tropics, and always with great success. It shoots the short-range 
loads at 50 yards with exactly the correct sight adjustment for the 
full-charged load at 100 yards, and as any rifleman can see this is an 
enormous advantage. If small game is sighted when the rifle is loaded 
for large game, all that it is necessary to do is to change the cartridge. 
I have frequently, when testing this rifle, fired many rounds of full- 
charged cartridges at 100 yards, and small game loads at 50 yards, 
with exactly the same sight adjustment, aiming at the bottom of the 
bull's-eye in each case, and kept every shot within a 2-inch circle im- 
mediately above the point of aim. Moreover, in ten years this rifle has 
not changed its elevation an appreciable amount. In fact it is the 
most reliable rifle I have ever seen or heard of. The only fault that 
I have to find with it is a fault that it shares in common with all other 
single-shot rifles : namely, it is difficult to load it quickly when the 
hands are numb with cold. Despite the opinion of the present genera- 
tion for users of repeating rifles exclusively, it can be fired and loaded 
plenty quick enough for any kind of game shooting, except perhaps 
charging dangerous game. 

I append herewith a trajectory table for this cartridge with the 
regular 220-grain factory load, velocity 2000 feet per second, which 
will be found useful by sportsmen. 

TRAJECTORY TABLE, .30-40 CARTRIDGE 
220 grain bullet. Velocity 2000 feet per second 



Height of 
bullet at 






Rifle sighted for: 










50 yards 


100 yards 


1 50 yards | 200 yards 


250 


yards 


300 


yards 




Feet inches 


Feet inches 


Feet inches 


Feet inches 


Feet 


inches 


Feet 


inches 


50 yards 




1.2 


2-5 


3-9 




5-5 




7- 


100 yards 


-2.4 




2.6 


5-5 




8.6 


I 


0. 


150 vards 


-7-6 


-3-9 




4-3 




9- 


I 


1-5 


200 yards 


-1 3-6 


-II. 


-5.6 






6.2 


I 


8. 


250 yards 


-2 3- 


~l 9. 


-I 2.7 -7.8 








8. 


300 yards 


-3 6.2 


~2 II. 


-2 3-5 


-1 7- 




-7-6 






350 yards 


-5 1-7 


-4 5- 


-3 8.2 


-2 9. 


-I 


6. 


-I 




400 yards 


-7 2. 


-6 4. 


-5 5-. 


-4 4- 


-2 


10. 


-2 


4.2 



The figures with the minus sign (-) in front of them indicate that the bullet 
strikes below the point of aim. 



CARTRIDGES 

.3O-CALIBER, MODEL I906 CARTRIDGE 



249 




This description refers particularly to this cartridge from a sporting 
or hunting standpoint. For a description of the military cartridge 
and its ballistics see Chapter IV. The following table gives the 
ballistics of this cartridge with 150-, 180-, and 220-grain bullets as 
loaded by the Winchester Repeating Arms Co. : 



Weight of bullet 

Muzzle velocity 

Velocity at 100 yards 

Velocity at 200 yards 

Velocity at 300 yards 

Muzzle energy 

Energy at 100 yards 

Energy at 200 yards 

Energy at 300 yards 

100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards . . 
200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards . 
300 yard trajectory, height at 150 yards . 

Diameter of bullet 

Groove diameter of barrel 

Powder charge, Du Pont No. 20, about 
Twist of rifling, one turn in 



150 


180 


2,700 


2,509 


2,46s 


2,290 


2,244 




2,039 




2,445 


2,517 


2,034 


2,097 


1, ess 




1,^92 




.68 


.76 


2.95 


3-29 


7-50 


8.22 


.30825 


.308 


.308 


.30S 


48.6 


46.5 


10 


10 



220 

2,204 

1,999 

I,8l2' 

1,639 
2,376 
i,95o 
1,602 

1,311 
1. 00 
4-52 

n.40 
.308 
.30S 

43 
10 



grains. 

feet per second. 

feet per second. 

feet per second. 

feet per second. 

foot pounds. 

foot pounds. 

foot pounds. 

foot pounds. 

inches. 

inches. 

inches. 

inch. 

inch. 

grains. 

inches. 



For penetration see Chapter IV. 

This cartridge can also be loaded with the following Du Pont 
powders, and bullets to give the results indicated : 



Powder 


Bullet, 
grains 
weight 


Pow- 
der 
charge, 
grains. 

weight 


Veloc- 
ity, 
feet per 
second 


Pres- 
sure, 

pounds 
per 

square 
inch 


Du Pont military rifle powder No. 10 


I50 
180 
150 
150 


52 

54 
5o 
54 


2,6oO 
2,6oO 
2,70O 
2,900 


44,640 
54,820 
40,620 
51,200 


Du Pont military rifle powder No. 10 


Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 15.. 
Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 15 . . 



250 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



Powder 


Bullet, 
grains 
weight 


Pow- 
der 

charge, 
grains 
weight 


Veloc- 
ity, 
feet per 
second 


Pres- 
sure, 
pounds 

per 
square 
inch 


Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 15.. 
Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 15 . . 
Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 15.. 
Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 16.. 
Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 16. . 
Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 16.. 
Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 16.. 
Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 18. . 
Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 18.. 
Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 18.. 

Du Pont military rifle powder No. 20 

Du Pont military rifle powder No. 20 


180 
180 

190 
ISO 
ISO 
220 
220 
150 
150 
220 
150 
172 
ISO 
190 

195 
170 
220 
150 
172 


47-6 

51-5 

46.6 
46 

52.5 

43 

45 

5i-5 

48 

46.5 

48.6 

47-3 
46.6 
45-6 
34-9 
26 

43 
46 
42.2 


2,500 
2,700 
2,430 
2,703 
3,039 
2,206 
2,30O 

2,925 
2,700 
2,350 

2,686 
2,567 
2,520 
2,424 
i,932 
2,067 
2,200 
2,700 
2,460 


46,780 
56,130 
46,420 
41,940 
54,640 
43,800 

54,800 
44,580 
50,460 
49,300 
49,090 
49,990 
49,230 
3I,IOO 
30,660 

50,300 
50,000 


Du Pont military rifle powder No. 20 


Du Pont military rifle powder No. 20 

Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21 


Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21 ... . 







All of the above powder charges should be weighed on scales and not measured. 
The charges of Du Pont No. 15 powder are particularly recom- 
mended for this cartridge. The load of 51.5 grains with 180-grain, 
pointed bullet makes a most excellent long-range target load, giving 
to this bullet a very high velocity. This charge is probably less in- 
fluenced by the wind than any charge in any rifle with the exception 
of the 180-grain load in the .280 Ross match rifle. The same powder 
charge with the 180-grain, umbrella-pointed bullet made by the 
Remington-U. M. C. Co. for the .30-40 cartridge is the most efficient 
all around load for large game that can be obtained, giving great 
killing power, fine accuracy, and a very flat trajectory. It will kill 
with a single shot any game in America. Here we have a load that 
is effective on Alaska brown bear, and the largest moose, and at 
the same time has flat enough trajectory, and good enough accuracy 
for long shots at mountain sheep. I have used this load for a number 
of years on game with the greatest success, having killed moose 
and 18-foot crocodiles instantly with it. A large crocodile is the 
hardest beast to kill instantly that I know of. On deer this load 
spoils a lot of meat. 

For reduced loads the following are recommended : 
Ideal bullet No. 308344 with gas check, cast of Ideal bullet metal No. 
1, and sized to .31 1 inch. 25.5 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle 
powder No. 21. Rem.-U. M. C. No. 9, or U. S. C. Co. No. 8 primer. 



CARTRIDGES 



251 



This is a line mid-range load, and shoots accurately up to 500 yards, 
possibles having been made at that range on the military target B. 

Ideal bullet No. 308241 S, cast of ideal bullet metal No. 2, or of 
1 part of tin to 10 parts of lead, and sized to .311 inch. 10.5 grains 
weight of Du Pont gallery ritle powder No. 75. Same primers as 
above. This is a very accurate and inexpensive load for use up to 200 
yards. It will keep in an 8-inch bull's-eye on a calm day at that range. 

Neither of the above loads will work well in Winchester rifles, as 
these rifles are usually chambered so tightly that a shell expanded 
to fit these .311 bullets will not fit the chamber without undue force 
being used to insert it. Smaller bullets than .311 do not give very 
good accuracy. 





S. S. 2 

Fig. 72 
Groups fired with reduced loads in U. S. rifle, Model of 1903. Muzzle and 
elbow rest, 50 yards. No. 1. 10 shots, Ideal bullet No. 308241, 10 grains Du 
Pont No. 75 powder, Remington-U. M. C. No. 9 primer, Frankford shells. 
No. 2. 10 shots, U. S. Government 150-grain, full-jacketed service bullet, 17 
grains of Du Pont No. 75 powder. Both groups exact size. 

The regular 150-grain, pointed, full- jacketed bullet. Seventeen 
grains weight of Du Pont gallery rifle powder No. 75. Same primers 
as above. This is an extremely accurate load up to 300 yards at 
least. At 50 yards all shots can be kept inside an inch circle. It is 
the most satisfactory load that I know of for small game, and for 
use by the sportsman in conjunction with his large game load. The 
report is light, and the recoil nil. It will kill grouse without injuring 
the meat for the table, and at the same time it has sufficient killing 
power for all other small game. I have shot monkeys, beaver, otter, 
coyotes, agouti, and sloth with it, killing instantly in almost all cases, 
and not spoiling the pelts for the taxidermist. At the same time it 
will shoot accurately in a rifle which has already been fouled by 
having the full-charged cartridge fired in it, a thing that no lead or 
alloy bullet load will do. 

In order to give an idea as to the different points of impact and 
elevations required with various loads in this cartridge, there is given 



252 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



below the actual elevations required for the different loads in my 
Springfield rifle which has been remodelled into a sporting arm 
(regular Springfield barrel) and equipped with Lyman No. 48 rear 
sight which reads to minutes of angle. 



Load 



Yards I Elevation 



Windgauge 



Ideal bullet No. 308241. 10.5 grains Du 

Pont No. 75 

Ideal bullet No. 308334. 25.5 grains Du 

f'ont No. 21 

150 grain pointed full patch. 17 grains 

Du Pont No. 75 

150 grain United States government 

service load, 2700 feet per second 

150 grain United States government 

service load, 2700 feet per second 

170 grain Newton S. P. 47.5 grains Du 

Pont No. 20 

170 gram Newton S. P. 47.5 grains Du 

Pont No. 20 



50 
50 
5o 
100 
200 
100 
200 



21 minutes 
16 minutes 
16 minutes 

8 minutes 
11 minutes 

8 minutes 
11 minutes 



I 3 points right 

j 

I 3 points right 
I 2 points right 
4 points right 
4 points right 
4 points right 
4 points right 



In each case the rifle was so sighted that the center of impact of 
the group came about one inch above where the top of the front sight 
rested in aiming. The ammunition in the first and second loads 
seated a little hard, although it was never necessary to pound the bolt 
handle to close it. The last load was with the 170-grain, pointed, pro- 
tected-point, copper- jacketed bullets made by the Newton Arms Co. 

Colonel Roosevelt used a Springfield sporting rifle with excellent 
results on antelope and similar game in Africa. The cartridge used 
was the regular service load with 150-grain, pointed, full- jacketed bul- 
let. He found that the bullet apparently turned over and spun around 
on striking flesh, and caused a bad wound, killing quickly. Subsequent 
experiences among a great many sportsmen, however, has shown 
conclusively that the 150-grain, service bullet is not a satisfactory game 
bullet. It very often glances and fails to penetrate right through 
into the vitals in the direction in which it is aimed. Cases have even 
been known where it has struck a rib on the side of the animal, and, 
glancing, has entirely encircled the animal just under the skin, coming 
out on the opposite side, inflicting a very painful but not vital wound. 

The most popular big game load at the present time is that loaded 
with 150-grain, pointed, expanding or umbrella bullet, and having 
a velocity of 2700 feet per second. This is so principally because it 
is the only mushroom bullet having the standard velocity of 2700 feet 
per second that is loaded regularly by the ammunition factories. It 
does quite good work on all kinds of game, but -cannot be regarded 
as altogether satisfactory. It is a little too light for a bone smasher, 



CARTRIDGES 253 

and on the larger game it seems sometimes to explode and fly to 
pieces before it has penetrated to a vital part. I would hardly call it 
absolutely reliable on moose and large bear. The special load of Du 
Pont No. 15 powder, and the 180-grain, Remington-U. M. C. umbrella 
bullet, mentioned above, is more satisfactory in every respect. 

Probably the most satisfactory load regularly produced by the 
ammunition companies is that loaded with the 172-grain, full- jacketed 
bullet particularly for long-range target work. This has been used 
by a number of my friends with very satisfactory results on large 
game. It is also the load used by Stewart Edward White in Africa. 
Mr. White has the following to say as regards this load on African 
game: "Springfield: I have fired just 395 cartridges out of this 
weapon. Of these I have made 307 hits, killed 185 animals, and of 
those shot at missed 49. ■ The weapon is in good shape and shoots 
just as well now as it ever did. In fact the last ten animals were 
killed with thirteen shots, all hits, at 160 (running), 270, 268, 348, 
151, 210, 196, 230, 391, and 256 yards, which shows that metal foul- 
ing is not bothering much. I keep it down with a Marble brush, 
clean with boiling water, and use Mobilubricant in the field. W'ith 
this weapon I killed a very large eland (these beasts weigh from 
2500 to 3000 pounds), all my zebra, the greater kudu and roan, wilde- 
beeste, four lions, and all the buck. The pointed bullet is good medi- 
cine always. African game of all sizes is notoriously tenacious of life, 
but of the 185 animals of all sorts killed with this gun, 112 were 
downed with one shot each. It is not heavy enough for lion, rhino, 
buffalo, hippo, or elephant, however, although it will kill any of them, 
with the possible exception of buffalo, which is the real tough 'un 
for punishment, and the rhino except the head shot." 

.30-NEWTON HIGH-POWER CARTRIDGE 



IM.A.CO. 



This is a cartridge of very high velocity adapted to the Newton 
high-power sporting rifle. It is very similar to the .30-caliber Model 
1906 cartridge except that the shell is larger and holds more powder. 
It can be used with all of the bullets adapted to the 1906 cartridge. It 
is usually loaded with a 172-grain, copper- jacketed, pointed, soft-point 



254 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



expanding bullet, and the ballistic data for this load as given by the 
Newton Arms Co., is as follows: 

Muzzle velocity 3,ooo feet per second. 

Velocity at ioo yards 2,804 feet per second. 

Velocity at 200 yards 2,618 feet per second. 

Velocity at 300 yards 2,439 feet per second. 

Muzzle energy 3,440 foot pounds. 

Energy at 100 yards 3,oio foot pounds. 

Energy at 200 yards 2,631 foot pounds. 

Energy at 300 yards 2,287 foot pounds. 

100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 51 inch. 

200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards 2.22 inches. 

300 yard trajectory, height at 150 yards 5.28 inches. 

Diameter of bullet 308 inch. 

Bore diameter of barrel 300 inch. 

Groove diameter of barrel 3 12 inch. 

Twist of rifling, one turn in 10 inches. 

Powder charge, Du Pont No. 10 or No. 15 65 grains. 

For reduced loads the same jacketed bullets used in the .30-caliber, 
Model 1906 cartridge will give good results with about 5 grains more 
powder. If lead alloy bullets are used they should be sized to .313- 
inch. The use of the various .30-caliber, Ideal gas-check bullets is 
not recommended for use in this cartridge as the groove diameter 
of the bore of the rifle is too large for the diameter of the gas check. 

The following table gives the actual ballistic results obtained with 
a .30-caliber Newton rifle : 

RIFLE WITH 24-INCH BARREL. NEWTON 172-GRAIN BULLET 



Powder 


Grains 

weight 


Muzzle 
velocity, 
feet per 

second 


Pressure, 
pounds p^r 
square inch 


Du Pont No. to 


68.5 

79- 
67.5 


2,900 
3,000 
2,900 


54,820 
50,740 
54,880 


Du Pont No. 13 





In a Newton rifle with 30-inch barrel, 79 grains of Du Pont No. 
13 powder and 172-grain Newton bullet gave a velocity of 3225 feet 
per second with a breech pressure of 50,740 pounds per square inch. 

This is an extremely powerful cartridge with high velocity and 
very flat trajectory. In fact it can be regarded as the most powerful 
cartridge at present made in America. It is amply powerful enough 
for any game found in North America, and for all but the very heaviest 
African game. The recoil is rather heavy for the novice, but in the 
hunting field will not bother any one accustomed to shooting the .30- 
caliber, Model 1906 cartridge. 

When tested for accuracy on my -experimental range, from muzzle 



CARTRIDGES 255 

and elbow rest, Newton rifle with Newton peep sight, Newton factory- 
ammunition loaded with Du Pont No. 13 powder and the 172-grain, 
Newton, copper-jacketed, soft-point bullet, two groups were obtained 
at 100 yards, measuring 5.38 inches and 9.17 inches. These groups 
would have been about one inch smaller had a telescope sight been 
used. 

.32-20 WINCHESTER CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE 



This cartridge is adapted to the Winchester repeating rifles, Models 
1873 an d 1892, the Winchester single-shot rifle, the Marlin repeating 
rifles, Models 1894 and 27, and the Stevens Ideal rifle. The data for 
the factory cartridge as loaded by the Winchester Repeating Arms 
Co., are as follows : 

Muzzle velocity 1,222 feet per second. 

Velocity at 100 yards 1,010 feet per second. 

Muzzle energy 381 foot pounds. 

Energy at 100 yards 261 foot pounds. 

100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 3.62 inches. 

200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards 16.93 inches 

Penetration, lead bullet, %-inch boards 6.5 boards. 

Bullet, 1 15 grains, pure lead 115 grains. 

Diameter of bullet 311 inch. 

Groove diameter of barrel, about 311 inch. 

Powder charge, F. F. G. black powder 20 grains. 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 17.000 to 19,000. 

A similar cartridge to the above, with exactly the same ballistics, 
is also furnished loaded with smokeless powder, and either a lead, 
soft-point jacketed, or full-jacketed bullet. Also the various ammuni- 
tion factories supply a high velocity cartridge for which the follow- 
ing are the data: 

Muzzle velocity . , 1,640 feet per second. 

Velocity at 100 yards 1,283 feet per second. 

Muzzle energy 690 foot pounds. 

Energy at 100 yards 420 foot pounds. 

100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 2.10 inches. 

200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards . 10.70 inches. 

Penetration, soft point bullet, 7/ s-inch boards 7 boards. 

Penetration, full patch bullet, 7 A-inch boards 17 boards. 

Bullet, 115 grains, soft point or full jacketed 115 grains. 

Diameter of bullet 311 inch. 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 25,000 to 27,500. 

Of all these cartridges that loaded with smokeless powder and soft- 



256 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

point, jacketed bullet is probably the most accurate, although very good 
results can be obtained from freshly loaded black-powder cartridges. 
The high-velocity cartridge is not quite as accurate as the others, as 
the velocity is a little too high for the very short bullet. If factory 
cartridges are to be used it is best to use the black-powder cartridges, 
as the factory-loaded, smokeless cartridges will very quickly ruin the 
barrel from pitting. For the reason for this see under the .25-20 
cartridge. The black-powder cartridges, and the low pressure smoke- 
less cartridges, are very accurate up to 150 yards, but are hardly 
suitable for use beyond this range. For reloading use Du Pont 
Schuetzen, No. 75, or No. 80 powders, and the soft-point or full- 
jacketed bullets, but always use a black-powder primer and 2 grains 
bulk of F. F. F. G black powder in the bottom of the shell. 

This is a very good little cartridge for general use in the East for 
small game, and it will even kill deer if one is lucky enough to strike 
in a vital spot, but it should not be used for a deer gun, as far too 
large a percentage of this game fired at will simply be wounded. It 
is also a little too large for squirrels and such game, and has too 
high a trajectory for small game shooting except at ranges under 50 
yards. Within its capabilities it is a very accurate and nice shooting 
little rifle, and when the black-powder cartridge is used the rifle is 
very easy to care for. The Winchester Repeating Arms Co., cata- 
logue for January, 1892, page 5, stated in regard to this cartridge : " It 
is designed for small game at short range, and will be found the most 
accurate small-bore cartridge on the market." Many years ago the late 
William Lyman, the inventor of the Lyman sight, had the following to 
say regarding the .32-20 cartridge : " In the matter of cartridges I am 
glad to see that sportsmen are appreciating the advantages of shooting a 
light charge rather than the heavy charges that so many advocated two 
or three years ago. For large game, of course, a .32-20 W. C. F. car- 
tridge is rather small, but it comes nearer to being an all-around car- 
tridge in my opinion than any other. Up to 200 yards some of the best 
shooting that I have ever done was with this cartridge. The other 
morning I took five of these cartridges to my testing box to try an 
1892 Model Winchester that my man had just sighted, and the five 
shots would all have hit a ten-cent piece at 50 yards. An advantage 
of this light load is that one can shoot 50 or 100 shots without clean- 
ing, which cannot be done with the heavy charges (using black 
powder)." 



CARTRIDGES 257 

.32 WINCHESTER SELF-LOADING CARTRIDGE 



rSECSE^fflH 







This cartridge is adapted to the Winchester self-loading rifle, Model 
1905. It is a short, low-power, smokeless cartridge of practically the 
same ballistics as the .32-40 low-power cartridge. The following are 
the ballistic data for it : 

Muzzle velocity 1.392 feet per second. 

Velocity at 100 yards 1,167 feet per second. 

Muzzle energy ." 710 foot pounds. 

Energy at 100 yards 499 foot pounds. 

loo yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 2.~o inches. 

200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards 12.48 inches. 

300 yard trajectory, height at 150 yards 33-25 inches. 

Penetration, soft point bullet, %-inch boards 10 boards. 

Penetration, full patch bullet, %-inch boards 17 boards. 

Bullet, soft point or full jacketed ." 165 grains. 

Diameter of bullet 319 inch. 

Groove diameter of barrel, about 3205 inch. 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 28,000 to 30,000. 

A very satisfactory load for this rifle is Ideal bullet No. 321298, 
cast of Ideal bullet metal No. 2, or of 1 part of tin to 10 parts of 
lead, and sized to .321 inch. Seven grains weight of Hercules Sharp- 
shooter powder. Remington-U. M. C. No. 9, or U. S. C. Co. primer 
No. 8. This load develops slightly less velocity than the regular 
factory cartridge. 

This is a very accurate cartridge up to 300 yards and perhaps 
farther, but the high trajectory makes it undesirable for game shoot- 
ing at ranges over 150 yards. It is really not a good game cartridge, 
as it is not quite powerful enough for large game and too powerful 
for small game, although it will be found all right for the largest 
small game such as foxes and coyotes. It is best adapted for rapid- 
fire target shooting, giving excellent results when the range is known 
up to 300 yards. Great care should be taken in cleaning rifles firing 
this cartridge to avoid the pitting of the barrel. The barrel should 
be scrubbed with stronger ammonia or with Winchester Crystal 
Cleanser very soon after firing, but not while the rifle is still hot from 
firing. Then dry the bore, and oil thoroughly. Repeat the clean- 
ing on the following day. It is doubtful if the bore can be fully pro- 
tected by any method of cleaning, and if much shooting be done a 
new barrel will probably be necessary every year or two, depending 
of course on how much the rifle is fired and the care taken of it. 



258 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

.32-40 CARTRIDGE 




This popular cartridge is adapted to a great variety of rifles, almost 
every manufacturer having made rifles for it at some time. At present 
the following rifles are being manufactured for it in America : 
Winchester repeating rifle, Model 1894; Winchester single-shot rifle; 
Marlin repeating rifle, Model 1893 ; Savage repeating rifle, Model 
1899; Stevens Ideal single-shot rifle: The cartridge is made up in 
a large number of different loads by the various ammunition com- 
panies. The following table gives the data for these loads : Load 
No. 1 being the black powder and low-pressure smokeless load, a lead 
bullet being used with the black-powder load and a soft-point or full- 
patched jacketed bullet with the smokeless load. Load No. 2 is the 
Winchester high-velocity cartridge loaded with smokeless, powder 
and a soft-point or full-jacketed bullet. Load No. 3 is the Remington- 
U. M. C. high-power load, using a soft-point or full- jacketed bullet. 
This last load should only be used in rifles having smokeless steel 
barrels. Rifles with smokeless steel barrels can be had to order from 
the Winchester Repeating Arms Company, or can be obtained from 
regular stock from the Savage and Marlin companies, but are not 
made by the Stevens Company. 



Load No 

Muzzle velocity 

Velocity at 100 yards 

Velocity at 200 yards 

Velocity at 300 yards 

Energy at muzzle 

Energy at 100 yards 

Energy at 200 yards 

Energy at 300 yards 

100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards.... 
200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards. .. 
300 yard trajectory, height at 150 yards... 
Penetration, lead bullet, 7 /s-inch pine boards 
Penetration, soft point bullet, %-inch boards 
Penetration, full patch bullet, %-inch boards 

Diameter of bullets, all kinds 

Groove diam. of barrels, all makes, about 
Twist of rifling, all makes, one turn in. ... 

Powder charge, F. G. black powder 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 



I 


2 


3 


1,427 


i,752 


2,065 


1. 194 


1,460 


1,708 


1.055 


1,231 


1403 


967 


1.082 


IJ77 


747 


1,125 


1,558 


523 


781 


1,072 


380 


56i 


816 


330 


429 


495 


2-45 


1.70 


1.30 


12.22 


8.23 


5-47 


31.92 


22.08 


15-64 


8.5 






8.5 


10 


10 


18 


30 


38 


•319 






.3205 






16 






40 






17,000 


30,000 


34,000 


to 


to 


to 


19,000 


32,000 


36,000 



ft. per second. 

ft. per second. 

ft. per second. 

ft. per second. 

foot pounds. 

foot pounds. 

foot pounds. 

foot pounds. 

inches. 

inches. 

inches. 

boards. 

boards. 

boards. 

inch. 

inch. 

inches. 

grains. 



CARTRIDGES 



259 



The accuracy of these cartridges differ considerably. Satisfactory 
results cannot be obtained from factory-loaded, black-powder ammuni- 
tion unless it is quite freshly loaded, and then only fair results. I 
have found the low-pressure, smokeless cartridge loaded by the Win- 
chester Company to be very accurate at 200 yards when fired from 
a Winchester single-shot rifle, groups as small as 3.50 inches being 
obtained at that range. Groups of about 8 inches can be obtained from 
the Remington-U. M. C. high-power cartridge in a rifle having a 
smokeless steel barrel. 

This cartridge has a great reputation for accuracy. It has been 
used for years by Schuetzen riflemen for. extremely fine work at 200 
yards, but akvays with bullets seated in the barrel ahead of the shell. 
It is not a particularly accurate cartridge when the bullets are seated 
as deeply in the shell as in the factory ammunition. Very good re- 
sults can be obtained from lead bullets and black powder, loaded 
fresh, when the bullets are seated with about one-fourth inch more 
of the bullet projecting from the shell than is the case with the factory 
cartridge. A very accurate load for use with either black or semi- 
smokeless powder is as follows: Ideal bullet No. 321232, cast of 1 
part of tin to 32 parts of lead, and sized to .321 inch. Forty-four 
grains, bulk measure, of King's semi-smokeless F. G. or C. G. powder, 
or the same amount of F. G. black powder. The bullet seated so that 
two bands project from the shell. With this load I have obtained 2- 
inch groups at 100 yards in a Winchester single-shot rifle which had a 
groove diameter of .3205 inch. 

The following loads of smokeless powder can be used in this 
cartridge, using either the soft-point or full-patched, jacketed bullets : 



Kind of powder 



Hercules 
Du Pont 
Du Pont 
Du Pont 
Du Pont 
Du Pont 
Du Pont 
Du Pont 
Du Pont 
Du Pont 
Du Pont 



" sharpshooter " 
smokeless No. 1 
sporting No. 80 
military No. 16 
military No. 16 
military No. 16 
military No. 18 
military No. 18 
military No. 18 
military No. 21 
military No. 21 



Grains 
weight 


Velocity 
feet per 
second 


II 


1,450 


17 


I,450 


13.2 


1,450 


21 


1,435 


25 


i,754 


30.5 


2,260 


23.5 


i,430 


25-3 


i,75o 


29 


2,100 


18 


1,500 


26.5 


2,030 



Pressure, 

pounds 

per 

square 

inch 



low 
low 
low 

II,30O 
21,880 
39,700 x 



l6,00O 
43,000 



1 This powder charge should be weighed, not measured. It will be necessary 
to compress the charge slightly to seat the bullet. 



260 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

The Ideal Manufacturing Company can furnish a large variety of 
alloy bullets for this cartridge. Among these may be mentioned bullet 
No. 31949 of 134-grains weight. This bullet has a very sharp point, 
and when used with a charge of low-pressure powder it will kill 
squirrels and grouse neatly without spoiling their meat for the table, 
a thing that cannot be done with any of the regular bullets, as the 
flat points tear small game rather badly. Ideal bullet No. 319295 with 
gas-check may also be used, cast of Ideal bullet metal No. 2, or of 1 
part of tin to 10 parts of lead, and sized to .321 inch. With it use 
23-grains weight of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21, giving a 
velocity of about 1850 feet per second, and very good accuracy. 

The Schuetzen riflemen who practice fine target shooting at 200 
yards exclusively invariably use very heavy single-shot rifles, and load 
their bullets ahead of the shell into the rifling by means of a bullet 
seater (a sort of a plunger working inside a dummy shell which seats 
the bullet approximately central in the rifling). The shells are filled 
with powder and a cardboard wad placed on top of the powder to 
prevent the same spilling. The shell is loaded into the chamber after 
the bullet has been seated, thus making two operations necessary to 
load the rifle. Much better accuracy can be secured in this manner 
than with the bullet seated in the shell, provided the bullet is ac- 
curately centered in the bore without deforming it. A great many 
different bullets and charges of powder have been used in this way 
by Schuetzen riflemen from time to time, the bullet being almost 
always a little heavier than the standard 165-grain bullet, running 
from 180 to 200 grains. The best load that I know of at the present 
time for regular commercial single-shot barrels that have not been 
throated is as follows : 

Ideal Bullet No. 319289 cast of 1 part of tin to 15 parts of lead, 
and the two base bands sized so that they are as large as can be seated 
in the bore with the strong Ideal bullet seater. This size may vary 
a little with different barrels. For powder charge use the shell full 
of Du Pont Schuetzen powder, or else about 3 grains of Du Pont 
No. 1 smokeless powder in the base of the shell, and the balance of 
the shell filled with King's semi-smokeless powder, F. G. Use a card- 
board wad over the powder. It may be necessary to experiment 
a little with the powder and kind of temper of bullet. The load 
should give from 4- to 5-inch groups at 200 yards in good barrels. 

The best results that can -be secured from the regular commercial 
barrels is with the load designed by Dr. W. G. Hudson, and in order 



CARTRIDGES 261 

to use this load it is necessary that the rifling be reamed out a little 
just in front of the chamber to receive the large bullet. The Ideal 
Manufacturing Company are prepared to ream out barrels in this 
manner, but after reaming they can only be used for this one particular 
bullet. The bullet is the Ideal bullet No. 319273. The two broad base 
bands of this bullet measure .323 inches, and it can only be seated 
in barrels that have already been throated, and then requires the 
strong Ideal bullet seater. The bullet weighs 185 grains, and should 
be cast of one part of tin to fifteen of lead, and not sized. For powder 
charge use the shell full of Du Pont Schuetzen powder and use a 
smokeless primer. This load is good for from 3- to 4-inch groups 
at 200 yards. 

See also the chapter on the Pope Muzzle Loading System. 

.32 WINCHESTER SPECIAL CARTRIDGE 




This cartridge is adapted to the Winchester repeating rifle, Model 
1894, the Winchester single shot rifle, and the Marlin repeating rifle, 
Model 1893. It was introduced in response to a demand for a smoke- 
less powder cartridge somewhat like the .30-30, which could be re- 
loaded satisfactorily with black powder. The following are the data 
for the regular factory cartridge : 

Muzzle velocity 2,112 feet per second. 

Velocity at 100 yards 1,769 feet per second. 

Velocity at 200 yards i,4/i feet per second. 

Velocity at 300 yards 1,237 f ee t per second. 

Muzzle energy 1,684 foot pounds. 

Energy at 100 yards i.iSi foot pounds. 

Energy at 200 yards S16 foot pounds. 

Energy at 300 yards 578 foot pounds. 

100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 1.17 inches. 

200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards 5.60 inches. 

300 yard trajectory, height at 150 yards 15.26 inches. 

Penetration, soft point bullet, %- inch boards 12 boards. 

Penetration, full patch bullet, %-inch boards 45 boards. 

Bullets, soft point or full metal patch 170 grains. 

Diameter of bullet 321 inch. 

Groove diameter of barrel, about 321 inch. 

Powder charge, Hercules " Lightning " 23.5 grains. 

Twist of rifling, one turn in 16 inches. 

Standard Pressure, pounds per square inch 36,000 to 38,000. 

This cartridge can also be loaded with the following charges of 
powder, using the regular 170-grain, jacketed bullet: 



262 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



Kind of powder 



Du Pont military No. 15 

Du Pont military No. 16 

Du Pont military No. 16 

Du Pont military No. 16 

Du Pont military No. 18 

Du Pont military No. 18 

Du Pont military No. 20 

Du Pont military No. 21 



Grains 
weight 


Velocity, 
feet per 


Pressure, 
pounds per 


second 


square inch 


32 


1.974 


26,000 


30.8 


2,120 


27,480 


32.5 


2,225 




33-5 


2,395 


39,OI5 X 


33 


2,050 


34,120 


34-5 


2,275 


38,500 1 


3i 


2,040 


35,300 


29.1 


2,090 


40,200 



1 These powder charges should be weighed on scales, and not measured. 

The following loads with Ideal bullets can also be used: 

Ideal gas-check bullet No. 321297, cast of Ideal bullet metal No. 
2 and sized to .321 inch. Twenty-four grains weight of Du Pont 
military rifle powder No. 21. Remington-U. M. C. No. 9 or U. S. C. 
Co., No. 8 primer. A good load for varmints, etc. Velocity about 
1800 feet per second. 

Ideal Bullet No. 321232, cast of No. 2 Ideal bullet metal, or of 1 
part of tin to 10 parts of lead, and sized to .321 inch. Sixteen grains 
weight of Du Pont No. 1 smokeless or Du Pont Schuetzen powder, 
or 15.2 grains weight of Du Pont sporting rifle powder No. 80. Same 
primers as above. This is a good low-power load, giving about 1450 
feet per second velocity. 

The .t,2 Winchester special factory cartridge is a very good load 
for all but the very largest game. It is a fine deer and black bear 
cartridge. The slow twist of the rifling makes a barrel of very long 
life, particularly if the new Du Pont pyro powders are used instead 
of the old Lightning powder. In fact if these new powders are used 
there is no reason for using any of the alloy bullets, as the life of the 
barrel will be practically limitless, and the jacketed bullets always give 
a little better accuracy. With the 170-grain, soft-point or full-jacketed 
bullet a very nice light load for short range use is about 14 grains of 
Du Pont gallery rifle powder No. 75. 

.32 REMINGTON-U. M. C. AUTO-LOADING CARTRIDGE 

S 




This cartridge is very similar to the .^2 Winchester Special, except 
that it has a rimless shell. It is adapted to the Remington-L 1 . M. C. 
auto-loading rifle, the Remington-L T . M. C. slide action sporting rifle, 
and the Stevens high-power repeating rifle. The following are the 
data for the factory cartridge: 



CARTRIDGES 263 

Muzzle velocity 2,1 12 feet per second. 

Muzzle energy 1,682 foot pounds. 

200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards 5.31 inches. 

300 yard trajectory, height at 150 yards 14.82 inches. 

Bullet, soft point or full patch •. . 165 grains. 

Diameter of bullet 319 inch. 

Groove diameter of barrel, about 319 inch. 

Twist of rifling, one turn in 14 inches. 

Powder charge, Du Pont military No. 16 . .' 32.3 grains. 

Chamber pressure, pounds per square inch 36,000 pounds. 

The powder charge used in the factory cartridge gives the best 
results and highest safe velocity, and other charges are not recom- 
mended for the full charge load. Ideal gas check bullet No. 32 13 17 
may be used, cast of Ideal bullet metal No. 1, and sized to .321 inch, 
with 24 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21, with 
good results, but it is in no way superior to the standard load, except 
that the bullets are a little cheaper. This cartridge will give about 
8-inch groups at 200 yards, and is powerful enough for all but the 
very largest American big game. 

Do not make the mistake of using in this cartridge loads that are 
recommended for the .32 Winchester special cartridge, as they might 
prove extremely dangerous. The two cartridges are very different, 
particularly as regards powder space. The relation of powder space 
to bullet weight and caliber is such in this Remington cartridge that it 
is impossible, even with the improved Du Pont powders, even slightly 
to increase the velocity over the standard. 

•33 WINCHESTER CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE 




A high power, smokeless cartridge adapted to the Winchester 
Model 1886 repeating rifle, the Winchester single-shot rifle, and the 
Marlin Repeating rifle. 

Bullet, soft point or full metal patched 200 grains. 

Bullet, diameter 338 inches. 

Length of shell 2 Vio inches. 

Average groove diameter of barrels : 340 inch. 

Powder charge, Hercules W. A. .30 caliber 36 grains. 

Muzzle velocity 2,056 feet per second. 

Velocity at 100 yards 1,741 feet per second. 

Velocity at 200 yards 1,467 feet per second. 

Velocity at 300 yards 1,246 feet per second. 



264 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

DATA FOR FACTORY CARTRIDGE 

Muzzle energy 1,877 foot pounds. 

Energy at 100 yards 1,346 foot pounds. 

Energy at 200 yards goo foot pounds. 

Energy at 300 yards 680 foot pounds. 

100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 1.21 inches. 

200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards 5.78 inches. 

300 yard trajectory, height at 150 yards 15-51 inches. 

Penetration, soft point, %-inch pine hoards 13 boards. 

Penetration, full jacketed, %-inch pine boards 39 boards. 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 33.000 to 35,000. 

For full trajectory table of this cartridge see under .30-40 Government (Krag) 
cartridge, the trajectory of these cartridges being so similar up to 300 yards 
that the table for the .30-40 will suffice for all practical purposes for the 
•33 W. C. F. 

This cartridge owes its popularity to the excellent rifle to which it is 
adapted, the Winchester Model 1886. It is a very good big game 
cartridge for all but the very largest game. It is not, however, a very 
good long range cartridge, as the flat point of the bullet causes its 
velocity to fall off rapidly, and it has not sufficient accuracy. It is 
therefore not recommended for distances over 300 yards. At 200 
yards accuracy tests show that it will group ten consecutive "shots 
in an 8-inch circle on an average. Groups have been made as small 
as 5% inches and as large as 12 inches. It is capable of being specially 
loaded to give higher velocities, and consequently flatter trajectory, 
and greater killing power as will be seen below. The recoil is very 
light, and is hardly more noticeable than that of the .30-30 cartridge. 

SPECIAL LOADS 

Two hundred-grain, soft-point or full-jacketed bullet, and 41.5 
grains weight of Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 16. 
Primer U. S. C. Co. No. 8, or Remington-U. M. C. No. 9. Muzzle 
velocity 2250 feet per second. Muzzle energy 2244 foot pounds. 
Chamber pressure about 38,000 pounds per square inch. The powder 
charge should always be weighed and not measured. This is the 
heaviest load that can be recommended, and the charge should never 
be exceeded. This load should only be used in new rifles, or those 
in absolutely perfect condition. While the chamber pressure does 
not seem particularly high, on account of the taper of the shell the 
back thrust on the bolt head in rifles using this cartridge is equivalent 
to that given by very much higher velocities in other rifles using shells 
with straighter bodies. Subject to these remarks this is an excellent 
and powerful load. 

Two hundred-grain, soft-point or full-jacketed bullet, and 35.4 



CARTRIDGES 265 

grains weight of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21. Same primers 
as in the first load. Muzzle velocity and energy same as with the 
factory cartridge. The powder charge will measure very nicely and 
accurately in the Ideal powder measure No. 5. Where one desires 
the same results as with the factory cartridge, shells should be re- 
loaded with this charge as the No. 21 powder gives much less erosion 
and even better accuracy than the factory charge of Hercules W. A. 
.30-caliber powder. The accuracy life of the rifle is practically un- 
limited with this charge, provided the bore be properly cleaned and 
cared for. 

Ideal gas check bullet No. 338320, 199 grains, cast of Ideal bullet 
metal No. I or No. 2, and sized to .340 inch. Bullet lubricated with 
Ideal banana lubricant. Shells must be first resized at neck and then 
expanded with a .340 muzzle expander chamber to fit this bullet. 
Powder charge 31 grains (weight) of Du Pont military rifle powder 
No. 21. Primers same as with the first special load. Muzzle velocity 
about 1800 feet per second. A very nice light charge, suitable for 
coyotes, lynx, etc., where it is specially desired to avoid spoiling the 
skin. Too powerful for small game. 

Ideal bullet No. 338234, 145 grains, cast of Ideal bullet metal No. 
2, and sized to .340 inch. Bullet lubricated with Ideal banana 
lubricant. Shells must first be resized at neck and then expanded 
with a .340-inch muzzle expander chamber to fit this bullet. Do not 
crimp. Powder charge 10 grains (weight) of Du Pont gallery rifle 
powder No. 75, or 12 grains (weight) of Du Pont sporting rifle powder 
No. 80. Primers same as with first special load. Muzzle velocity 
about 1300 feet per second. A nice light charge for small game, but 
on account of the shape of the point of the bullet it will tear grouse 
and similar game rather badly. 

For target practice I would recommend the third load given above, 
as it is quite accurate and the wear on the rifle is very small. 

See also under Winchester repeating rifle, Model 1886. 

•35 WINCHESTER SELF-LOADING CARTRIDGE 




This cartridge is adapted to the Model 1905 Winchester self-load- 
ing rifle. The following are the ballistic data for it : 



266 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Muzzle velocity 1,396 feet per second. 

Velocity at 100 yards 1,151 feet per second. 

Muzzle energy 779 foot pounds. 

Energy at 100 yards 530 foot pounds. 

100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 2.74 inches. 

200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards 13-07 inches. 

Penetration, soft point bullet 9 boards. 

Penetration, full patch bullet 17 boards. 

Bullet, soft point or full patch 180 grains. 

Twist of rifling, one turn in 16 inches. 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 28,000 to 30,000. 

This is a good cartridge for deer and black bear, being very similar 
in its ballistics and size to the old .38-40 W. C. F. cartridge. It has 
good accuracy up to 200 yards, but is not particularly good beyond 
that range. It has a high trajectory and is not suitable for long range 
work. For white tail deer in thick timber it is a very satisfactory 
cartridge. 



.351 WINCHESTER SELF-LOADING CARTRIDGE 



35 1.WJN C HESTER ^ 



SOFT POINT f 



This is a high-power cartridge adapted to the Model 1907 Winchester 
self-loading rifle. The following are the ballistic data for the factory 
cartridge : 

Muzzle velocity 1,861 feet per second. 

Velocity at 100 yards 1,523 feet per second. 

Muzzle energy 1,385 foot pounds. 

Energy at 100 yards 927 foot pounds. 

100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 1.55 inches. 

200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards 7.60 inches. 

300 yard trajectory, height at 150 yards 21.10 inches. 

Penetration, soft point bullet, %-inch pine boards 13 boards. 

Penetration, full patch bullet, %-inch pine boards 26 boards. 

Bullet, soft point or full patch 180 grains. 

Twist of rifling, one turn in 16 inches. 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 37,000 to 39,000. 

This is a good cartridge for deer and similar game in close timber. 
It has plenty of killing power for this game, and the rifle that handles 
it permits of very rapid fire. It is not suitable for shots much over 
200 yards as the trajectory is not fiat enough, and the accuracy begins 
to fall off fast after passing the 200-yard range. 



CARTRIDGES 

• 35 REMINGTON-U. M. C. AUTO-LOADING CARTRIDGE 



267 




This is a very popular high-power cartridge adapted to the Reming- 
ton-U. M. C. auto-loading rifle, the Remington-U. M. C. high-power, 
slide-action sporting rifle, and the Stevens high-power repeating rifle. 
It is the most powerful cartridge made for any American auto-loading 
rifle. As made by the Remington-U. M. C. Co., this cartridge is 
turned out with two types of bullets, the regular 200-grain, round- 
point bullet made with either soft point or full patch, and the 170- 
grain, pointed bullet, made in full patch only. The following are the 
ballistic data for these two cartridges : 



Weight of bullet 

Muzzle velocity 

Velocity at 100 yards 

Velocity at 200 yards 

Muzzle energy 

Energy at 100 yards 

Energy at 200 yards 

200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards . .. . 
300 yard trajectory, height at 150 yards .... 
Penetration, soft point bullet, %-inch boards . 
Penetration, full patch bullet, %-inch boards 

Diameter of bullet 

Groove diameter of barrel, about 

Twist of rifling, one turn in 

Powder charge, Hercules " Lightning " .... 
Standard pressure, pounds per square inch . 



200 


170 


2,020 
1,672 


2,120 


1-390 
1-776 


i,69S 


1,240 

857 




5-93 


5-32 


16.17 


14.30 


13 




32 
,356 
.356 

16 


•356 

.356 

16 


29 




34,000 




to 




36,000 





grains. 

feet per second. 

feet per second. 

feet per second. 

foot pounds. 

foot pounds. 

foot pounds. 

inches. 

inches. 

boards. 

boards. 

inch. 

inch. 

inches. 

grains. 



The following powder charges may be used with the regular 200- 
grain, soft-point or full-patch bullet, or they may be increased not 
to exceed 2 grains and used with the 170-grain pointed bullet: 



Kind of powder 



Du Pont military No. 16 

Du Pont military No. 16 

Du Pont military No. 18 

Du Pont military No. 21 



Grains 
weight 


Velocity, 
feet per 
second 


41 
37 
38.8 
34-3 


2,233 
2,000 
2,000 
2,OO0 



Pressure, 
pounds 

per 

square 

inch 



36,660 
3T,00O 
36,000 
4I,50O 



1 This charge should be weighed on scales and not measured. 



268 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Ideal gas-check bullet No. 358315, weighing 202 grains, may also 
be used, cast of Ideal bullet metal No. 2, or of 1 part of tin to 10 parts 
of lead, and sized to .358 inch. With it use 30.6 grains of Du Pont 
military rifle powder No. 21, and the Remington — U. M. C. No. 9 
primer. This is an accurate load which is more economical than the 
others for target practice. 

The .35-caliber Remington cartridge is a very satisfactory one for 
all but the very largest game. It will kill even the large Alaskan 
bear and moose if struck right, but not always with a single shot. 
With an auto-loading rifle, however, one is almost sure of getting in a 
number of shots before the game gets out of sight, and this cartridge 
has been used in Remington-U. M. C. auto-loading rifles with good 
success on Alaskan game. It is quite an accurate cartridge, even up 
to 400 yards, but the trajectory is such that it is not satisfactory for 
game shooting at ranges much over 200 yards. At 200 yards it can 
be relied upon to group its shots in about an 8-inch bull's-eye. The 
twist of the rifling is slow, and the powder charge not excessive, giving 
to rifles using this cartridge a practically unlimited life, especially 
when the cartridges are loaded by the rifleman himself with one of 
the new Du Pont pyro powders instead of the old " Lightning " 
powder, preferably the Du Pont No. 16 powder which gives very low 
chamber pressure. 

This cartridge gives considerable recoil in the auto-loading rifle, 
but very light recoil in the slide-action arm. 

.35 WINCHESTER CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE 




This popular cartridge is adapted to the Winchester repeating rifle, 
Model 1895, and to the Winchester single-shot rifle. The following 
are the ballistic data for the factory cartridge : 

Muzzle velocity 2,200 feet per second. 

Velocity at 100 yards 1,923 feet per second. 

Velocity at 200 yards 1.672 feet per second. 

Velocity at 300 yards 1448 feet per second. 

Muzzle energy 2,687 foot pounds. 

Energy at 100 yards 2,053 foot pounds. 

Energy at 200 yards 1-550 foot pounds. 

Energy at 300 yards 1,175 foot pounds. 

100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 1.03 inches. 



CARTRIDGES 269 

200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards 4.73 inches. 

300 yard trajectory, height at 150 yards 12.24 inches. 

Penetration, soft point bullet, %- inch boards 15 boards. 

Penetration, full patch bullet, %-inch boards 56 boards. 

Bullet, soft point or full patched 250 grains. 

Diameter of bullet .356 inch. 

Groove diameter of barrel, about 358 inch. 

Twist of rifling, one turn in 12 inches. 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 39,000 to 41,000. 

This cartridge was formerly loaded with Laflin and Rand " 35-95 " 
powder, a powder very similar to the Hercules, " W-A. .30 Caliber," 
which was a nitroglycerine powder, and rather erosive in its effects, 
but I understand that the change is about to be made to one of the new 
Du Pont pyro powders which will be a decided improvement. 

In reloading with the regular 250-grain, jacketed bullet the best 
results can be obtained from Du Pont improved military rifle powder 
No. 16, 45.5 grains weight, giving a velocity of 2189 feet per second, 
with a chamber pressure of only 32,760 pounds per square inch, and 
47.5 grains weight giving a velocity of 2266 feet per second, with a 
chamber pressure of 37.720 pounds. Forty-six grains of Du Pont 
military rifle powder No. 20 may also be used, giving about 2200 
feet per second, but the chamber pressure will be slightly greater. 

The soft-point bullet with full charge is entirely too destructive 
for small game, even for game as large as foxes and coyotes. For 
such animals a nice load consists of the regular full-patched bullet and 
about 36 grains of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21. Or the 
Ideal gas-check bullet No. 358318 may be used, cast of Ideal bullet 
metal No. 1, and sized to .358 inch, with 34 to 36 grains of Du Pont 
military rifle powder No. 21. 

This is an excellent cartridge for all kinds of large game, including 
Alaska brown bear and moose. It will kill all American big game 
neatly with one shot if the game is struck anywhere near a vital 
spot. The recoil is a little heavy to the novice, but one used to shoot- 
ing will never notice it. 

.38 WINCHESTER CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE 




This is a very old cartridge, having been brought out many years 
ago for the Winchester repeating rifle, Model 1873. It formerly was 



270 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



a very popular cartridge, but in recent years has had to give way 
to more modern cartridges of superior ballistics. Quite a number 
of rifles are still sold for it, however. At present the following arms 
are being manufactured for it: Winchester repeating rifles, Models 
1873 and 1892; Winchester single-shot rifle; Marlin repeating rifle, 
Model 1894; Remington-U. M: C. slide-action sporting rifle, Model 
14%. Despite its name, this cartridge is really .40 caliber instead of 
.38 caliber. The ammunition factories load it up with several loads. 
There is the black-powder load with lead bullet, and the smokeless 
load of similar ballistics to the black powder load, using soft-point, 
and full-patched, jacketed bullets. In the last few years the factories 
have also placed on the market a high velocity load with soft-point 
or full- jacketed bullets which gives increased velocity and power. 
The following table gives the ballistics for these loads : 



Black and 

smokeless 



High 

velocity 



1,776 feet per second 
1,367 feet per second 
1,261 foot pounds 
747 foot pounds 

1.79 inches 

g.46 inches 

27.32, inches 
.... boards 

10. boards 

20 boards 
180 grains 
.400 inch 

36 inches 
.... grains 

21,000 to 23,000 



Muzzle velocity 

Velocity at 100 yards 

Muzzle energy 

Energy at 100 yards 

100 yards trajectory, height at 50 

yards 

200 yards trajectory, height at 100 

yards 

300 yards trajectory, height at 150 

yards 

Penetration, lead bullet, %-inch boards 
Penetration, S. P. bullet, %-inch 

boards 

Penetration, F. P. bullet, vS-inch 

boards 

Bullet, lead, soft point, or full patch. 

Diameter of bullet 

Twist of rifling, one turn in 

Powder charge, F. F. G. black 

Standard pressure, pounds per square 

inch 



1,324 

1,053 

701 

443 

3-19 

15-53 

41.66 

7-5 

10 

12 
180 
.400 

36 

38 

15,000 to 17,000 



The Winchester Company also make a cartridge of this caliber 
having a hollow-point bullet weighing 165 grains, which has slightly 
greater velocity than the black-powder charge, and gives the maximum 
mushrooming effect on animal tissue. 

In reloading this cartridge I would recommend that Du Pont sport- 
ing rifle powder No. 80 be used, with either the soft-point or full- 
jacketed bullet. For the low pressure velocity use 14.9 grains weight, 
and for the high velocity cartridge use about 17 grains weight. If it is 
desired to use a lead bullet, either 38 grains bulk of F...F. G. black 



CARTRIDGES 



271 



powder should be used, or preferably 38 grains bulk of King's semi- 
smokeless powder, R G. or F. F. G. 

This cartridge is suitable for deer and black bear at ranges up to 
200 yards. Beyond that range the trajectory is too high, and the 
accuracy begins to fall off. The low-pressure smokeless cartridge is 
the most accurate, being good for about 10-inch groups at 200 yards, 
or about 3 1 /6-inch groups at 100 yards. The high velocity cartridge 
has greatly superior killing power to the low-power load, but if one 
is to shoot at rather long range he had better use the low-pressure 
load as it has plenty of power for deer and black bear up to 200 yards, 
and is much more accurate, particularly at ranges over 100 yards. 

.38-55 CARTRIDGE 




This is a very old cartridge, but it still retains much of its popularity. 
With the .45-70 cartridge it alone can be said to have successfully with- 
stood the introduction of smokeless powder and high velocity. A 
great number of different makes of single-shot rifles have been made 
for it from time to time, and it has always been a favorite cartridge 
with Schuetzen riflemen. At present the following rifles are being 
made for it: Winchester repeating rifle, Model 1894; Winchester 
single-shot rifle; Savage repeating rifle, Model 1899; Marlin repeating 
rifle, Model 1893 ; Stevens Ideal single-shot rifle. Three varieties of 
loads are on the market for this cartridge, the black and low-pressure 
load, the high-velocity cartridge, and the high-power cartridge. The 
high-velocity cartridge is loaded only by the Winchester Company, 
while the high-power cartridge is loaded by the Remington-U. M. C. 
Co. and some other factories. The following table gives the ballistic 
data for these various cartridges. 

When this cartridge was first made the shell was very thin and had 
a folded head, and contained 55 grains bulk of black powder. After- 
wards the shell was made thicker and stronger to stand reloading, 
and the powder space decreased, so that the shell as now manufactured 
will hold but 48 grains bulk of black powder when the bullet is seated 



272 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



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CARTRIDGES 273 

to the standard depth, but the cartridge has retained its old designation. 
Owing to this lack of powder space a very high velocity cannot be 
obtained in this cartridge. It is hard to get enough modern smoke- 
less powder into the shell, and the powder does not burn properly. 

The following powder charges can be used with good results in the 
.38-55 cartridge: 

With lead bullet: 

20 grains weight of Du Pont No. 1 smokeless. 
. 20 grains weight of Du Pont Schuetzen smokeless. 
15 grains weight of Du Pont gallery rifle No. 75. 

With metal-cased bullet, lozv power: 

16.4 grains weight of Du Pont sporting rifle No. 80. 

With metal-cased bullet: 

29.3 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle No. 18. Velocity 1593 feet per 

second. Pressure 26,000 pounds. 
22, grains weight of Du Pont military rifle No. 21. Velocity 1390 feet per 

second. Pressure 19,000 pounds. 

28 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle No. 21. Velocity 1690 feet per 
second. Pressure 36,000 pounds. 

29 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle No. 16. Velocity 1594 feet per 
second. Pressure 18,300 pounds. 

32 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle No. 16. Velocity 1700 feet per 
second. 

35 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle No. 16. Velocity 1899 feet per 
second. Pressure 38,760 pounds. This charge should be weighed on 
scales, and not measured. It will require a little compression of the pow- 
der to seat the bullet. 

Ideal gas-check bullet No. 375296, cast of Ideal bullet metal No. 
2, or of 1 part of tin to 10 parts of lead, and sized to .380 inch may be 
used with about 25 grains of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 21, 
and a very satisfactory load secured for target practice. 

The .38-55 cartridge is a very satisfactory one for deer and black 
bear. It has just about the right power to kill deer neatly without 
ruining a lot of meat, as many high-power cartridges do. It has 
often been used for larger game, but is a little light. At one time 
it was very popular among the guides of the State of Maine, and much 
used on moose, but several years' experience proved that it was not 
powerful enough for this game, although it did good work on caribou. 

This cartridge has long had a big reputation as a very accurate 
Schuetzen cartridge, the bullet being seated in the bore ahead of the 
shell, and with the shell full of black or semi-smokeless powder. The 
bullet used is almost always considerably heavier than the standard 
bullet for fixed ammunition, sometimes weighing as much as 330 grains. 
With commercial barrels the best results are now obtained from Ideal 
bullet No. 375272. The barrel must be throated to take this bullet, 



274 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



and when so changed cannot be used for other loads, but the results 
as far as accuracy is concerned makes it fully worth while. This 
bullet has two large base bands measuring .382 inch, and it cannot 
be seated in the barrel ahead of the shell unless the bore just in front 
of the chamber be throated to receive it. The bullet should be cast 
of 1 part of tin to 15 parts of lead, and not sized. It is to be seated 
about %2 inch ahead of the shell with the strong Ideal bullet seater. 
The shell should be rilled almost to the top with Du Pont Schuetzen 
powder, and a blotting-paper wad seated over the powder to retain 
it in the shell. Use shells that have already been expanded to fit the 
particular rifle by firing several times in that rifle. In good barrels 
this load is good for about 3- to 3%-inch groups at 200 yards, and is 
much less influenced by the wind than • any other Schuetzen loads 
usually used. The recoil is very light, about like that of the .32-40 
black-powder cartridge. 



.4OI WINCHESTER SELF-LOADING CARTRIDGE 

L—LIJI1LL J1J1I J J JJ 



'' S F T P CJ NX 2Q Q G R.L^^ 






SOFT POINT 2 50 GR.JH 



This is a smokeless, high-power cartridge adapted to the Winchester 
self-loading rifle, Model of 1910. It is regularly loaded with two 
weights of bullet, 200 and 250 grains. The following are the ballistic 
data for these two loads: 



Weight of bullet 

Muzzle velocity 

Velocity at 100 yards 

Velocity at 200 yards 

Velocity at 300 yards 

Muzzle energy 

Energy at 100 yards 

Energy at 200 yards 

Energy at 300 yards 

100 yards trajectory, height at 50 yards. . . . 
200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards. . . . 
300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards. . . . 
Penetration, soft point bullet, %-inch boards 
Penetration, full patch bullet, %-inch boards 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch. 



200 


250 


2,141 


1,875 


1,721 


1,543 


1,372 


L275 


1,132 


1,097 


2,037 


1,952 


1,31s 


1,323 


840 


900 


560 


675 


1. 01 


1.49 


6.47 


7-34 


17.06 


20.36 


14 


12 


r 34 


27 


J 37.000 


37,000 


1 t0 


to 


I 39,000 


39,000 



grains 

feet per second 

feet per second 

feet per second 

feet per second 

foot pounds 

foot pounds 

foot pounds 

foot pounds 

inches 

inches 

inches 

boards 

boards 



This is not a particularly accurate cartridge, but it has sufficient 
accuracy for the purpose for which it was designed, namely for a 
quick kill at short range. Neither of the loads is accurate enough, 



CARTRIDGES 



275 



even for large game shooting, at ranges much over 150 yards. It, 
and the rifle for which it is adapted, are, however, excellent for deer 
shooting in thick timber and jungle. With the auto-loading rifle a 
number of shots can be fired very quickly, and the cartridge is a very 
deadly one, giving quick kills at short range, or else a big blood trail 
to follow. This cartridge is often compared to the .30-40 (Krag) 
cartridge to show its power. It has more power at the muzzle than 
the .30-40 cartridge, but at all other ranges it is decidedly inferior 
to the latter cartridge as the following table will show. It must be 
remembered that game is not killed at the muzzle. Also the long, 
heavy, .30-40 bullet is much more of a bone smasher than the short, 
large-diameter bullet of the .401 cartridge. Nevertheless the .401 
bullet has plenty of destructive force for deer, and plenty of bone 
smashing power, and is probably a superior bullet for deer at short 
range to the .30-40-200 grain bullet, as it will cause much more blood 
to flow, and consequently a plainer trail to follow, if the deer be only 
wounded. 



Muzzle velocity .... 
Velocity at 100 yards 
Velocity at 200 yards 
Velocity at 300 yards 

Muzzle energy 

Energy at 100 yards . 
Energy at 200 yards . 
Energy at 300 yards . 



.401 A. L. 


.30-40 


2,141 


2,000 I 


1,721 


1,783 


1.372 


1,590 


1,132 


I,4lS 


2.037 


1,970 


I.3I5 


1.553 


840 


1,235 


560 


985 



feet 
feet 
feet 
feet 
foot 
foot 
foot 
foot 



per second 
per second 
per second 
per second 
pounds 
pounds 
pounds 
pounds 



.405 WINCHESTER CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE 




This is the most powerful cartridge adapted to any American rifle. 
The only rifle made for it is the Model 1895 Winchester repeater. 
The following table gives the ballistic data for this cartridge: 

Muzzle velocity 2,204 feet per second 

Velocity at 100 yards 1,897 feet per second 

Velocity at 200 yards 1,623 feet per second 

Velocity at 300 yards 1,384 feet per second 

Muzzle energy 3,236 foot pounds 

Energy at 100 yards 2,399 foot pounds 

Energy at 200 yards i,740 foot pounds 

Energy' at 300 yards 1,290 foot pounds 

100 yards trajectory, height at 50 yards 1.04 inches 

200 yards trajectory, height at 100 yards 4.85 inches 

300 yards trajectory, height at 150 yards 12.82 inches 



276 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Penetration, soft point bullet, "Much boards.... 13 boards 

Penetration, full patch bullet, %-inch boards.... 48 boards 

Bullet, soft point or full patch 300 grains 

Diameter of bullet 41 J hich 

Groove diameter of barrel, about 412 inch 

Twist of rifling, one turn in 14 inches 

Powder charge. Hercules " W-A. .30 caliber".. 45 grains 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 43,000 to 45,000 

In reloading this cartridge with the regular 300-grain, jacketed 
bullet the following powder charges of the new pyro powders are 
recommended as giving less erosion, and consequently a longer accuracy 
life than the regular charge of W-A. .30-caliber powder which is a 
nitroglycerine powder : 

53.4 grains weight of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 20, muzzle velocity 2173 
feet per second. Pressure 43,710 pounds per square inch. 

55 grains weight of Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 16, muzzle 
velocity 2192 feet per second. Pressure 41,420 pounds per square inch. 

The Ideal Manufacturing Company make bullet No. 412263 weigh- 
ing 300 grains for this cartridge, and recommend for powder charge 
28 grains weight of Du Pont No. 1 smokeless powder. I would also 
recommend 28 grains of Schuetzen powder. This load will give a 
velocity of about 1400 feet per second with very low pressure. Quite 
a different sighting will be required from the full load, and if the 
rifle is to use the two loads interchangeably it will be necessary to have 
it equipped with a sight having a large range of adjustment for both 
elevation and windage like the Lyman Nos. 38 or 41 receiver sights. 

This cartridge is the best one on the American market for all kinds 
of large game. It is powerful enough for any American game, and 
in fact is unnecessarily powerful for deer and such game. It has been 
used with excellent results on almost all African game but is a little 
small for rhino, buffalo, etc., and very much too small for elephant. 
It is the best moose and bear cartridge made in America, but where 
one is to do very much long-range shooting, particularly at mountain 
sheep, the .30 Model 1906 cartridge, loaded as suggested wnder the 
description of that cartridge, is advisable. 

This cartridge is quite an accurate one. At 200 yards in a good 
rifle it should group all its shots in a 7-inch circle. The trajectory 
is quite flat up to 200 yards, but beyond that distance becomes quite 
curved, owing to the large caliber and the blunt nose of the bullet. 
It is not a very suitable load for ranges over 200 yards, but inside that 
range cannot be excelled by any big game cartridge made in America 
for American rifles. It will kill big game dead with one shot oftener 
than any cartridge I know of. 



CARTRIDGES 277 

The recoil of this cartridge, in a Winchester rifle is about the same 
as that of an ordinary 10-gauge shotgun; a little severe to the novice 
but not at all troublesome to the seasoned shot. 

.44 WINCHESTER CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE 




This was the first center-fire cartridge produced for a repeating rifle. 
It was first placed on the market in 1873, being adapted then to the 
Winchester repeating rifle, Model 1873. This rifle was the first 
really successful repeating rifle, and immediately become very popular, 
so much so in fact that it is still being manufactured exactly as it was 
first put out. This cartridge at once gained an enormous popularity, 
due almost entirely to the excellent rifle to which it was adapted. The 
cartridge and rifle are both to a certain extent obsolete today, but are 
still very popular in out-of-the-way corners of the world, particularly 
South America. The sportsman of today would hardly choose it for 
any work, except perhaps should he be called upon to penetrate the 
South American jungles and wanted an arm of such caliber that he 
could be assured of getting ammunition for it anywhere. 

Ballistically considered, there are two types of ammunition loaded in 
the .44 W. C. F. shell at the present time ; the black-powder type which 
has low velocity, and which can be obtained loaded either with black 
or low pressure smokeless ; and the other the high-velocity type, being 
loaded with smokeless powder and given as high a velocity as is safe 
with the old type of rifles having ordinary steel barrels. 

The following are the ballistic data for the black-powder cartridge : 

Muzzle velocity 1,300 feet per second 

Velocity at 100 yards 1,034 feet per second 

Muzzle energy 751 foot pounds 

Energy at 100 yards 475 foot pounds 

100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 3.26 inches 

200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards 15.94 inches. 

Weight of bullet 200 grains. 

Diameter of bullet ■ 4^4 inch 

Powder charge, F. F. G. black 40 grains 

Twist of rifling, one turn in 36 inches 

Penetration, lead bullet, %-inch pine boards 9 boards 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 13,000 to 15,000 

The high velocity cartridge has the following ballistics: 

Muzzle velocity 1.569 feet per second 

Velocity at 100 yards 1,202 feet per second 



278 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Muzzle energy 1,095 foot pounds 

Energy at 100 yards 641 foot pounds 

100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 2.32 inches 

200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards 12.12 inches 

Penetration, soft point bullet, 7 /s-inch boards 10 boards 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 18,000 to 20,000 

At the present time the rifles being manufactured for this cartridge 
are the Winchester repeating rifle, Model 1873 (for black and low- 
pressure smokeless only) ; the Winchester repeating rifle, Model 1892; 
the Winchester single-shot rifle ; the Marlin repeating rifle, Model 1894; 
and the Remington- U. M. C. slide-action sporting rifle. 

The cartridge is not a particularly accurate one beyond 150 yards, 
and is not suitable for shots beyond 200 yards, both on account of its 
rather poor accuracy and very high trajectory. The low-pressure 
smokeless, and freshly loaded, black-powder loads will group their 
shots in about a 4-inch circle at 100 yards, but after 150 yards the 
accuracy falls off very fast. The high-velocity cartridge is not as ac- 
curate at any range as the low-power cartridge, but it has much more 
killing power for short-range work. This cartridge has been used 
on all kinds of game, but it is really not satisfactory for anything 
larger than deer and black bear. Owing to its being about the only 
satisfactory repeater in use during the latter days of the opening of 
our West, it was much used there and gained the reputation of having 
zvonnded more game than any other cartridge made. Nevertheless it 
is a very good deer cartridge for short-range shooting. 



.45-70 CARTRIDGE 




This cartridge was first manufactured for the United States Spring- 
field single-shot rifle which was the arm of the United States Army 
prior to 1892, when the first model of the Krag-Jorgensen rifle was 
adapted. It was loaded by the government arsenal with a 500-grain 
lead bullet and 70 grains of F. G. black powder for the Springfield 
rifle, and with a 405-grain lead bullet and 55 grains of F. G. black 



CARTRIDGES 



279 



powder for the Springfield carbine. At present the Winchester Model 
1886 repeating rifle, the Winchester Single-Shot Rifle, and the Marlin 
Model 1895 repeating rifle are the only arms being manufactured for 
this cartridge. 

We have a great variety of loads on the market at the present time 
for this cartridge as the following list will show : 







Muzzle 




Rullet 
weight 


Powder 


velocity, 
feet per 


Make 






second 




500 L & J 


Black and smokeless 


I20I 


Will. & U. M. C. 


405 L & J 


Black and smokeless 


I3I8 


Win. & U. M. C. 


350 L & J 


Black and smokeless 


1344 


Winchester 


330 L 


Black and smokeless 


I380 


Winchester 


300 J 


High velocity smokeless 


1888 


Win. & U. M. C. 


432 J 


Smokeless 


1340 


U. M. C. 


345 L 


Black 


I39O 


U. M. C. 



L — Lead bullet. J — Jacketed bullet. 

The following tables give the ballistics of the United States Govern- 
ment cartridges loaded with black powder : 

ELEVATIONS 



Range, 

yards 




Rifl 


e. 


Carbine. 


500 


-grair 


bullet 


405-g 


ram 


bullet, 


70 grains 


powder 


53 grains powder 


IOO 




17 


53 




2.2 


32 


200 




31 


18 




31 


23 


300 




44 


58 




43 


15 


400 


I 





32 




58 


30 


500 


I 


17 


18 


I 


18 


36 


600 


I 


34 


30 


I 


40 


12 


700 


I 


52 


36 


2 


03 


23 


800 


2 


12 


02 


2 


27 


22 


900 


2 


34 


36 


2 


52 


52 


1000 


2 


5« 


10 


3 


19 


53 



These 


angles of elevation are taken directly from 
VELOCITY AND ENERGY 


the arms. 




Rifle 


Car 


jine 


Range, 
yards 


500-grain bullet 


70 grains powde 


405-grain bullet 


55 grains powder 


Velocity, 
feet per second 


Energy, 
foot pounds 


Velocity, 
feet per second 


Energy, 
foot pounds 


Muzzle 


L3l6 


1,921 


1,150 


1,189 


100 


1,172 


1,525 


I,0l8 


930 


200 
300 


1,059 
986 


1,245 
1,079 


913 

827 


749 
616 


400 

500 
600 
700 

800 


932 

886 

844 
807 

772 


965 
872 
792 
723 
662 


757 
697 
646 
602 
564 


515 
437 
376 
326 
286 


900 


74i 


609 


530 


253 


1000 


712 


562 1 


500 1 


225 



Note : These velocities were taken with the regular Springfield rifles and 



28o 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



carbines, the rifle having a barrel 32.6 inches long, and the carbine one of 22 
inches. The regular rifle cartridge with 500-grain bullet gives a muzzle velocity 
of 1201 feet per second in a 26-inch sporting rifle barrel. 

CHAMBER PRESSURE 

The chamber pressure with the rifle, and the 500 grain bullet, 70 grains of 
black powder, is about 25,000 pounds per square inch. 





ORDINATES OF TRAJECTORY ABOVE LINE IF SIGHT-RIFLE 




Ss-p 


Height in feet at 


N 0) 


100 


->00 


300 


400 


500 


600 


700 


800 


900 


1000 


^ 
a 


yards 


yards 


yards 


yards 


yards 


yards 


yards 


yards 


yards 


yards 




Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


200 


I.I 


O 


















300 


2-3 


2.4 



















400 


3-7 


S.i 


4.1 

















500 


s.i 


7.9 


8.4 


57 


O 












600 


6.6 


10.9 


13-0 


11.9 


7.0 


O 










700 


8.1 


1 4.1 


17.6 


18.3 


154 


9-4 


O 








800 


9.8 


17.4 


22.6 


247 


23.9 


I9.6 


1 1.9 


O 






900 


11.6 


21.0 


28.2 


32.3 


33-5 


31.2 


25-5 


15-5 


O 




1000 


13-5 


24.8 


34-0 


40.3 


43-4 


43-4 


39-8 


32.1 


l8.5 






The following are the ballistic data given by the Winchester Repeat- 
ing Arms Company for their black and low-pressure smokeless cart- 
ridges in Winchester rifles having a barrel length of 26 inches : 



Weight of bullet 

Muzzle velocity 

Velocity at 100 yards 

Muzzle energy 

Energy at 100 yards 

100 yard trajectory, height at 50 

yards 

200 yard trajectory, height at 100 

yards 

300 yard trajectory, height at 150 

yards __. 

Penetration, lead bullet, %-inch 

boards 

Diameter of bullet 

Groove diameter of barrel, about 
Twist of rifling, one turn in .... 
Powder charge, F. G. black 



500 

1,201 
1,082 
1,602 
I.3I7 


405 
L3i8 
LU3 
1.562 
1,176 


350 
1,343 
1,139 
1,403 
1,009 


330 
1,380 
IJ55 
1,396 

974 


3-35 


2.90 


2.86 


2-75 


14.82 


13.27 


14.96 


I3-05 


36.12 


33-55 


34-32 


3378 


18 
•456 
•457 

20 


13 
•456 
•457 

20 


13 
456 
•457 

20 


10 
.456. 

•457 
20 


70 


70 


70 


70 



grams 

feet per second 
feet per second 
foot pounds 
foot pounds 

inches 

inches 

inches 

boards 

inch 

inch 

inches 

grains 



Note : The twist of rifling in the Springfield rifle is one turn in 22 inches. 
The following are the ballistic data for the Winchester high-velocity 
cartridge : 

Muzzle velocity 1,888 feet per second 

Velocity at 100 yards 1,539 feet per second 

Muzzle energy 2,375 xo °t pounds 

Energy at 100 yards 1-579 foot pounds 

100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 1.47 inches 

200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards 7.40 inches 



CARTRIDGES 281 

Penetration, %-inch pine boards 13 boards 

Bullet, soft point jacketed 300 grains 

Diameter of bullet 456 inch 

Standard pressure, pounds per square inch 23,000 to 25,000 

ACCURACY 

Under good conditions, with freshly loaded ammunition, the .45-70- 
500 and .45-70-405 cartridges will group their shots in about a 5-inch 
circle at 200 yards, and in about an 18-inch circle at 500 yards. The 
.45-70-350 and the .45-70-330 Gould hollow-point cartridges will 
group their shots in about an 8-inch circle at 200 yards. The Win- 
chester high-velocity cartridge will group its shots in about an 8-inch 
circle at 200 yards, but its accuracy falls off very quickly after passing 
200 yards; it being essentially a short-range cartridge where great 
power is desired, and flat trajectory over 200 yards. In killing power 
on game the high-velocity cartridge will be found best for broadside 
shots on most game, but taking it all around, game in all positions, 
the cartridges loaded with 500- and 405-grain bullets are much the best 
killing loads. These last cartridges are powerful enough for all 
American game, and the high-velocity cartridge for all game except 
moose and large bear. 

This is an excellent cartridge for big game shooting where long shots 
are not expected. It combines power, accuracy, and a practically un- 
limited accuracy life. The recoil is rather severe to the novice, but 
nothing to speak of to the seasoned shot. This cartridge can be re- 
loaded to give greatly increased power, but caution is needed in so re- 
loading it, as there are in use many rifles for this cartridge that have 
been fired many thousands of rounds, and in which the breech bolt does 
not breech up as tightly as it should. The following load will be 
found to be exceedingly powerful, but it should only be used in new 
rifles, or rifles in first-class condition, and the powder charge should 
be weighed and not measured. Use the Winchester 405-grain, soft- 
point, jacketed bullet. The powder charge should be 50 grains weight 
of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 20. This load will give a velocity 
of about 1700 feet per second, and a chamber pressure of about 32,- 
000 pounds per square inch. Forty-four grains' weight of this powder 
with the same bullet gives a velocity of 1490 feet per second at a testing 
range of 50 feet, and a breech pressure of 22,000 pounds per square 
inch and is a very good load. The best reduced load that I know of 
for short range and gallery work is the 405-grain lead bullet, cast 
of 1 part of tin to 25 of lead, and 35 grains bulk of Hazards F. G. black 



282 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



powder. This load is very good up to ioo yards, and was much used in 
gallery work by the New York National Guard prior to the Spanish- 
American War. 

.45-90 WINCHESTER CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE 




This cartridge is adapted to the Winchester Model 1886 repeating 
rifle, the Winchester single-shot rifle, and the Marlin Model 1895 re- 
peating rifle. It is very similar to the .45-70 cartridge, being slightly 
longer, and containing 20 grains more powder. Two types of cart- 
ridges are loaded by the ammunition factories. One with black or 
low-pressure smokeless powder, and the other a high-velocity car- 
tridge : The following table gives the ballistic data for these car- 
tridges : 



Black 




and 


High 


smoke- 


velocity 


less 




i,S32 


1,992 feet per second 


1,248 


1,621 feet per second 


1,563 


2,644 foot pounds 


i,037 


1,752 foot pounds 


2.28 


1. 41 inches 


11.24 


6.63 inches 


13 


— boards 


15 


14 boards 


300 


300 grains 


456 


.456 inch 


•457 


.457 inch 


32 


2,2. inches 


90 


— grains 



Muzzle velocity 

Velocity at 100 yards 

Muzzle energy 

Energy at 100 yards 

100 yard trajectory, height at 50 yards 

200 yard trajectory, height at 100 yards .... 

Penetration, lead bullet, %-inch boards 

Penetration, soft point bullet, %-inch boards 

Weight of bullet, lead or jacketed 

Diameter of bullet 

Groove diameter of barrel, about 

Twist of rifling, one turn in 

Powder charge, F. G. black powder 



This cartridge can also be reloaded with the following powder 
charges and bullets to give superior ballistics : 



Bullet, 
weight 




Charge, 


Velocity, 


Pressure, 


Powder 


grains 


feet per 


pounds per 




weight 


second 


square inch 


300 M. P. 


Du Pont Military No. 20 


57 


1,996 


30,880 


350 M. P. 


" No. 20 


53-5 


1,851 


28,100 


405 M. P. . 


No. 20 


52.3 


I,/84 


28,650 


300 M. P. 


' Sporting No. 80 


31.2 


I,6oo* 


low 


300 M. P. 


" " Imp. Mil. No. 16 


68 


2,325 


35,000* 



* Estimated 
The last listed load gives great killing power, but is not as accurate as 
the others, particularly at ranges over 150 yards. It must be re- 



CARTRIDGES 283 

membered that the faster one speeds up a short, blunt pointed bullet 
like the 45-caliber 300 grain, the poorer the accuracy will be. Such 
bullets are really not accurate except at very low velocities. 

The regular .45-90 cartridge gives good accuracy up to 100 yards, 
and fair accuracy up to 200 yards. At 200 yards, good ammunition 
in a good rifle should keep all shots in about a 10-inch circle. The 
high-velocity cartridge will not do quite as well as this at 200 yards, 
but at 100 yards there is practically no difference between the two. 

This is an excellent cartridge for all but the very largest game at 
ranges up to 200 yards. It used to be a very popular big game car- 
tridge, but of late years has had to give away to the small-bore, high- 
velocity arms. 



CHAPTER XII 

MODERN RIFLE POWDERS * 

HISTORICAL 

GUNPOWDER has been known by the inhabitants of China and 
India almost since prehistoric times. We find reference to it in 
some works compiled before the Christian era. It was not until about 
the year 1320 that it became generally known in Central Europe. As 
far as known there was very little difference between these early pow- 
ders and our black powder as we know it today. All were a mechani- 
cal mixture of sulphur, saltpeter, and charcoal. There has been com- 
paratively little development in black powder during the past century, 
except as to the refinement, methods of manufacture, and granulation. 

As has been stated in Chapter I, the first successful smokeless pow- 
der was that invented by Schultze, and made almost entirely from gun- 
cotton. It was applied almost exclusively to shotguns, but some rather 
unsuccessful experiments with rifles of low velocity were made with 
it. The shotgun presented an easier problem than the rifle, and this is 
the reason why a shotgun powder was the first successful one. In 
the case of the shotgun the type of projectile used is a limitation which 
stands hopelessly in the way of attainment of higher velocity, and con- 
sequent increase of range. The rifle presents a problem in which 
the attainment of higher velocity is not limited by the form of the 
projectile. Accuracy is attained by the use of a single projectile fitted 
exactly to the barrel, and high velocity is possible because the form of 
that projectile is not limited to a sphere. The forerunner of the 
rifle, the smooth-bore gun, was used with a round bullet, and the 
velocity obtainable was limited by the air resistance to the surface of a 
sphere. 

Upon the development of the rifle it was quickly found that a 
cylindrical bullet could be used, which overcame the resistance of the 
air much better than the sphere. Then came a contest for high velocity 
between rifle and powder manufacturers to produce a rifle strong 

1 The author desires to acknowledge the great assistance rendered by 
E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company in the preparation of this chapter. 

284 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 



285 




Fig. 73 

Schr.ltze shotgun powder. The first successful smokeless powder. 

400 times actual size 

enough to withstand the pressure developed by powder sufficiently 
powerful to give a velocity which would meet demands created by 
the possibilities which people foresaw. Air resistance was cut down 
by making the diameter of the bullet smaller and smaller, and weight 
was increased by making the bullet longer, thus having the air resist- 
ance applied to the smallest possible area and putting all the mass pos- 
sible behind it, in which mass energy is stored, having been imparted 
to it by means of the powder. 

It was not long before the black-powder manufacturer reached the 
limit of development in the contest. This powder, by its nature, is 



286 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

capable only of a moderate amount of improvement. It gives a relative 
small quantity of gas in proportion to its volume. If the high velocity 
now obtainable with modern powders were attempted with black pow- 
der, the volume of the shell would have to be nearly three times as 
great as it now is. This would make a clumsy cartridge to handle, and 
the parts making up the breech mechanism of the rifle would have to 
be correspondingly enlarged so that the result would be a monstrosity. 
Also black powder leaves a heavy residue in the bore. With the best 
of conditions this residue causes a slight falling off of accuracy after 
from five to fifty shots have been fired from the rifle without cleaning, 
and when it was attempted to increase velocity by decreasing the 
caliber, lengthening the bullet, and increasing the powder charge, the 
increase in the residue was so great as to destroy the accuracy unless 
the bore was cleaned after every shot. Military requirements have 
always played an important part in the development of the rifle, and 
its cartridge, and besides high velocity, and consequent low trajectory, 
the military requirements have always demanded a powder which shall 
give forth as little smoke as possible both in order that the exact position 
of the firing troops shall not at once be disclosed to their enemy, and 
also that there be not a large cloud of smoke in front of the firing 
line to interfere with, or totally obscure, the aim at the hostile target. 
The latter requirement also has its importance from a sporting stand- 
point. 

It has been stated that the first successful smokeless powder was for 
shotguns. Control of rate of burning of guncotton was not mastered 
for some years after the first shotgun powder appeared. The quick 
burning and low pressure required made the main factors of the prob- 
lem an easy one for shotguns, but when the knowledge thus far gained 
was applied to military rifles immediate success was not forthcoming. 
Control of nitration, colloiding, ignition, and hygroscopic qualities were 
not understood as they are now, and the result was that early smoke- 
less powders applied to rifles were far from satisfactory. These early 
powders were, of course, made to suit the requirements of black- 
powder rifles, and these, on account of their design, must be operated 
at very low pressure. The art of smokeless powder manufacture 
reached a critical point in its development when Vieille, in 1886, per- 
ceived how important was the use of solvents. For the first time 
nitrocellulose was completely gelatinized, and made into squares. This 
was the first military powder. It was soon followed by ballistite, in- 
vented by Sir Alfred Nobel, then by cordite, invented by Sir Frederic 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 



287 




Fig. 74 
Ballistite powder. 400 times actual size 

Abel. Both of these powders contained nitroglycerine. No attempt 
was made to obtain progressive burning by using a perforated powder 
until experiments in the manufacture of a perforated grain were begun 
independently, but almost simultaneously, by Francis G. du Pont 
and Colonel Whistler. 

The next development in smokeless powder was the improvement 
of the grain. If a solid form of grain is ignited, like the grains of black 
powder or any grain without perforation, the burning surface begins 
to decrease immediately after ignition. As the grain burns it gets 
smaller and smaller, and as a consequence there is a decrease in the 



288 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

evolution of gas. This decrease comes at a very inconvenient time, 
just when the projectile is getting up speed, and needs all the push 
behind it that it can get. Suppose, however, we make our powder 
grains in the form of short cylinders, and through the center of each 
cylinder make a small hole or perforation. When a grain of this form 
burns, the interior surface, inside the perforation, begins to increase 
immediately upon ignition, and continues to do so with an increasing 
production of gas until this surface meets the steadily decreasing ex- 
terior surface of the grain, at which time the grain is consumed. 
With such a grain the increase in the interior burning surface and the 
decrease in the exterior burning surface about balance each other, 
thus there is a steady maintenance of gas production until the grain is 
completely consumed. Such powder is called " regular burning pow- 
der." 

With regular burning powder the pressure begins to fall off as the 
projectile starts forward in its passage through the barrel, because the 
space the powder has to burn in is steadily increasing. This condition 
is not ideal. What we want is a steadily increasing push up to the point 
where the bullet leaves the muzzle in order to increase velocity, as with 
the regular burning powder the velocity is limited by the permissible 
pressure exerted by the gases at their maximum pressure, that is the 
breech pressure. It will be evident that if we take a cylindrical grain 
and increase the number of holes or perforations through it we will 
soon arrive at that point where the interior burning surface will increase 
faster than the exterior burning surface decreases. In other words, 
our grain will constantly throw off more and more gas until it is 
completely consumed, that is it burns "progressively." This principle 
was applied to early smokeless powders for cannon, finally ending in a 
grain with nineteen perforations. This final form of grain, however, 
was abandoned because it was too progressive, and the pressure at the 
muzzle too high. In the case of cannon, weight at the muzzle to 
strengthen it to meet the pressure at this point is objectionable, also 
vibrations are set up, coincident with high muzzle pressure, that cause 
bursting of the gun even though, seemingly, the pressure is not great 
enough to cause disaster. 

Now the manufacture of smokeless powder for rifles is limited to a 
grain of cylindrical form having a single perforation, because a grain 
having more than one perforation would be so large that accuracy in 
measuring charges by machinery, and a required variation of the 
powder charge for various rifles, would be impossible. This limita- 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 289 

tion has caused our powdermakers to look elsewhere than towards the 
form of grain alone for obtaining the progressive burning qualities 
so earnestly sought. It was then found that by coating the grain of 
ordinary powder with another powder of slightly different composi- 
tion it was possible to cause the grain to burn slowly while the coating 
was being consumed, in other words, to burn progressively. This 
started the bullet on its way with a gentle push, and thus avoided the 
shock caused by the ignition of regular burning powder at high pres- 
sure. Any rifle is capable of being operated at a certain pressure, tak- 
ing into consideration a reasonable safety factor. Let us suppose that 
the permissible working pressure is 50,000 pounds per square inch, 
and that with this pressure, and regular burning powder, a muzzle 
velocity of 2700 feet per second is attained. When we come to use a 
progressive, or coated, powder in this arm we find that owing to the 
sustained push throughout the length of the bore we are able to get 
this 2700 feet per second velocity with a breech pressure of only 45,000 
pounds. Our rifle will stand 50.000 pounds working pressure, there- 
fore we are able to use more of the progressive burning powder, and 
when we use enough of this powder to give 50,000 pounds pressure we 
find our velocity has increased to about 3000 feet per second. This 
progressive burning powder marks the latest development in modern 
rifle powders, the first successful powder of this type having appeared 
in 1914. While these powders have considerably increased the ballis- 
tic efficiency of existing rifles, the full advantage of them will not 
be realized until they are applied to a rifle and cartridge expressly de- 
signed to obtain the maximum advantage from them. In this respect 
the .30 Newton cartridge would seem to be a step in the right direction. 
It is difficult to ascertain just where the first idea of coating powder 
to make it burn progressively originated. The first experiments that 
showed any positive indication of success were performed in 1901 by 
Dr. William J. Williams, chemist for the Ordnance Department, United 
States Army, and by J. C. Carr, ballistic engineer at Frankford Arsenal. 
The work was brought to the attention of Francis G. du Pont, who ex- 
amined samples of powder treated by Dr. Williams, and decided that 
the improvement had little value. Again the attention of the Du Pont 
Company was called to it in subsequent years, and finally in 1905 some 
samples were very carefully prepared and tested in comparison with 
ordinary powder at two different ballistic stations by different opera- 
tors. The result indicated little advantage. Not many years after this 
it became known that a progressive powder was manufactured in 



290 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Germany, and the advantage that this powder had was apparently 
that a higher velocity was obtained with a pressure that was not ex- 
cessive. The lack of success in the perfection of a progressive powder 
in this country was due to the fact that the military rifle, in which all 
experiments were carried on, used a nitroglycerine powder, and the 
process invented by Dr. Williams did not adapt itself with advantage 
to this type of powder. In subsequent years experiments were taken up 
independently of the Du Pont Company with the advantage of all the 
information that could be obtained on the manufacture of progressive 
powders. The series of powders now in use were brought out, and 
their superiority is due to the care taken in their gradual development, 
the result of years of experience, and the adoption of only the best in- 
ventions and suggestions. 

MANUFACTURE OF MODERN POWDERS 

The different types of smokeless powder having been carried 
through their development, it will be of interest to the riflemen to learn 
something about their manufacture. Few manufacturing processes 
differ more widely than black and smokeless powder. The former is 
chiefly mechanical ; that is, being assured of the purity of the in- 
gredients all that remains is to put them together properly, and in a 
day or two the finished product is ready for use. In fact in the olden 
times the ingredients of black powder were carried separately by 
armies, and the powder mixed on the battlefield. The manufacture of 
smokeless powder, however, from the beginning to the turning out 
of the finished product, requires at least three weeks. It is a chemical 
process throughout, and laboratory control is necessary at every stage. 

Smokeless powder used by various governments, and for sporting 
purposes, is of two kinds, sometimes classified as " single-base " pow- 
ders, and " double-base " powders. Single-base powders are made 
from straight nitrocellulose without the admixture of any other in- 
gredient except a small amount of some stabilizing material. Double- 
base powders are made from a mixture of nitrocellulose and nitro- 
glycerine. The principal governments using single-base powders are 
the United States, France, and Russia, while those using double base 
powders are England, Italy, and Spain. 

The powder used by the United States Army and Navy is a pure 
nitrocellulose powder, to which is added 0.5 per cent, of diphenylamine 
as a stabilizing agent, and the grains are coated with graphite. Nitro- 
cellulose is a material obtained by treating cellulose in a mixture of 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 291 

nitrie and sulphuric acids. It is frequently referred to as guncotton, 
collodion cotton, soluble cotton, etc. Our own nitrocellulose has a 
nitrogen content of between 12.50 per cent, and 12.70 per cent., which 
is not less than 95 per cent, soluble in a mixture of two parts of ether 
and one of ethyl alcohol. It is common to refer to this grade of 
nitrocellulose as " pyro," which has a definite meaning to powder manu- 
facturers in the United States. Guncotton, strictly speaking, has ref- 
erence to a particular form of nitrocellulose of higher nitration, usually 
between 13 per cent, and 13.40 per cent., which is only slightly soluble 
in the mixture of ether and ethyl alcohol. 

At most powder mills the construction of smokeless powder begins 
with the manufacture of nitric and sulphuric acid, and with the purifica- 
tion of crude cotton fiber of the grade called " linters." To purify the 
cotton it is heated for several hours in a caustic soda solution. The 
purification of this and the acids requires an immense amount of 
laboratory work. After manufacture, the nitric and sulphuric acids are 
mixed, and the mixture checked by chemical analysis. The mixture 
is maintained at an even temperature, and the cotton in a dry state 
is immersed in it. This is done by machinery, and is called " nitrating." 
The cotton is changed into nitrate of cellulose, or " nitrocellulose," and 
water by the action of the nitric acid. The sulphuric acid present ab- 
sorbs the water formed, and prevents it from causing hydrolysis which 
would otherwise result. The nitrocellulose is then placed in a centrif- 
ugal wringer, and as much of the acid extracted as possible. This 
acid has been considerably weakened by the giving up of combined nitro- 
gen, and the taking on of water, but it can be fortified by the ad- 
mixture of strong nitric and sulphuric acids in the proper proportions 
and used again. The nitrocellulose taken from the wringer, and con- 
taining a considerable quantity of acid, is immersed in water immedi- 
ately, otherwise it would soon catch fire spontaneously. Nitrocellulose 
of various strengths is made by changing the strength of the acid mix- 
ture. Chemical analysis of the acids is constantly made to make sure 
that the desired grade of nitrocellulose is being turned out. This nitro- 
cellulose in water is transported in wooden tubs in which it is boiled for 
forty-eight hours to set it free from acid. It is necessary to keep the 
water in an acid condition, but not too strongly so, for a portion of the 
time, consequently frequent chemical tests must be resorted to. When 
boiling is complete the nitrocellulose is reduced to pulp by machinery 
similar to that used in a paper mill, and the laboratory is again called 
upon to determine the fineness of the pulping. Proper regulation of 



292 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

the pulping has an important bearing upon the quality of the finished 
powder. When the pulping is complete the product is transferred to 
" poachers," or large tubs, where a further boiling treatment, with 
agitation, is given to set free any acid which was imprisoned inside 
the individual fibers. The nitrocellulose is boiled six times for periods 
of five hours each, and the water changed each time. Then it is 
washed ten times, the water being changed each time, after which a 
complete set of chemical tests is made upon each lot to determine its 
content of nitrogen, solubility, viscosity, stability, and per cent, of ash. 
Having passed the prescribed tests, it is ready to be made into powder. 
There are three different kinds of powder, single-base bulk, nitro- 
glycerine or double base, and single-base dense. 

Bulk potvder manufacture. The wet nitrocellulose is placed in a still 
fitted with an agitator, and containing a solution of barium and potas- 
sium nitrates. While the mass is being stirred, a solvent consisting 
of a mixture of amyl acetate, benzol, and paraffin oil is introduced. 
This solvent, being insoluble in water, separates- into globules. Each 
globule dissolves a certain amount of nitrocellulose, and by reason of 
the agitation they retain their separation. Heat is applied to the still, 
and the solvent is boiled off, leaving hard grains of nitrocellulose. 
Grinding, sieving, drying, seasoning, blending, and packing follow in the 
order given. The chemical laboratory controls the entire operation 
with tests to determine the strength of solutions, proportions of in- 
gredients, amount of volatiles left in the powder, amount of ash, and 
many other features on which the reliability of the finished product 
depends. This process is original with the Du Pont works, and was 
invented by Francis G. du Pont. It is the same process by which Du 
Pont shotgun powder is made. 

Nitroglycerine powder. Wet nitrocellulose is set free from water 
by forcing alcohol through it, displacing the water. This is done in a 
hydraulic press, and the nitrocellulose, soaked in alcohol, is squeezed 
until there is left in it only a small quantity of alcohol. This process 
was also invented by Francis G. du Pont, and is called " dehydration." 
Previous to this invention it was necessary to dry all the nitrocellulose 
— an exceedingly dangerous undertaking, and one which had many 
fatal consequences. The nitrocellulose containing alcohol is placed 
in a mixing machine. Nitroglycerine and acetone are mixed with it, 
the operation being, of course, a dangerous one. Then it is placed in 
a hydraulic press and made to pass through dies which give to it the 
form of tubes or perforated cylinders. These tubes are cut into slices 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 293 

or short lengths, and as a result, grains are produced cylindrical in 
form with a central perforation. The length of cut, the diameter of 
the tube, and the diameter of the perforation are changed in accord- 
ance with the use to which the powder is to be put, the principle being 
approximately as follows: A powder for the .45-90 Winchester 
cartridge must burn quickly, therefore the cut is very short and the 
perforation large. A powder for the United States rifle, Model of 
1903, must be slower burning, therefore the grain is as long as possible, 
the length being limited by the difficulty encountered in loading ac- 
curate charges into the cartridge shells by machinery. The diameter 
of such grains is small and the perforation exceedingly small. 

Drying, sieving, blending, and packing follow in the order given, the 
entire group of operations being controlled by the chemical and ballistic 
labratories. 

Nitrocellulose powders. These are also known as " single-base dense 
rifle powders." The process of manufacture of these powders is simi- 
lar to that of nitroglycerine powders as far as dehydration. After this 
the alcohol-bearing nitrocellulose is sieved, placed in a mixer, and ether, 
diphenylamine, and graphite are added. Diphenylamine is a compound 
which insures chemical stability. Its introduction in 1908 was an im- 
portant step in the improvement of all kinds of smokeless powders. 
When the mixing is complete the mass is transferred to a hydraulic 
press, and compacted into a cylinder about 12 inches in diameter and 
18 inches long. Several cylinders are placed in a finishing press by 
means of which the powder is pressed through dies as described for 
nitroglycerine powders, only the average size of the tubes are much 
smaller than the nitroglycerine powders. The strings or tubes of 
powder, as they come out of the dies, are fed into a machine which 
cuts them accurately into grains having a uniform length. The granu- 
lated powder is placed in an apparatus called " solvent recovery " where 
the ether contained in it is volatilized by a current of warm air, then 
condensed. By this means an important economy in the use of ether 
is effected, as well as control of the shrinkage of the powder which 
has an important bearing on its quality. This solvent recovery process 
was also the invention of Francis G. du Pont. All of the ether neces- 
sary to be extracted cannot economically be taken out by the solvent 
recovery, however, and the powder has to be placed in warm water 
and kept there for about a week. This process is called " water dry- 
ing." Then the powder is dried by a current of warm air, glazed, 
sieved, blanded, and packed. Chemical control exerts a most important 



294 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

influence throughout the manufacture of this kind of powder. The 
amount of solvent left in the powder after solvent recovery and water 
drying treatment has to be ascertained, and many other properties 
must be controlled and watched. 

Progressive powders. The process is the same as for the powder 
just described, except that the coating material is made to adhere to 
the grain before glazing. We have; as a result, a grain made of 
pure nitrocellulose, coated and partly impregnated with a layer of 
slow-burning material, and imposed upon this a thin layer of graphite. 
The progressive properties of the powder can be controlled by changes 
in the size of grain, and changes in the thickness of coating. The rate 
of burning of this coating material likewise has an important influence 
upon the progressive features of the powder, and is being given close 
study. There is probably room for further improvement in this type 
of powder, and it may be that within a few years a combination of 
rifle and powder will be developed in which the velocity will be much 
higher than anything heretofore attained. 

THE COMBUSTION OF MODERN POWDERS 

In considering the combustion of modern powders we must first de- 
fine what an explosion is. A good definition for the word " explosion " 
is " the transformation of a solid into gases in a limited time." Powder 
is said to " burn," speaking technically, and if we use that term the 
process may be easier understood. When a stick of oak wood burns in 
a stove it undergoes the same process in a slow manner. If the stick be 
pine it burns somewhat faster. If, again, the same amount of wood 
be put in the stove in the form of fine, dry shavings it burns in still 
less time. The latter, though a long way off from it, is most like the 
form of burning which in powder is popularly called " exploding." 

Now the big difference between black and smokeless powder is in 
the speed of their burning. So far as its composition goes, black pow- 
der has only one speed, the speed of its burning being controlled, not by 
composition, but by the size of the grain. In the open air, or tightly 
packed behind a bullet, ignited by a white hot flame, or a red hot poker, 
or by a primer flash, it burns just the same — that is, it explodes. Of 
course there is some variation in its burning, due to fine or coarse 
granulation and shape of grains, but this is not important here. 

Smokeless powder has two speeds of burning, if we classify its com- 
bustion roughly. When ignited in the open air, as when on a board, 
it burns slowly, — much slower than black powder — and more feebly. 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 295 

In an enclosed shell, behind a bullet, and when its own expanding 
gases subject it to a certain pressure that the powder manufacturers 
know within a few pounds, it burns at a much faster rate. This is 
faster by far than the one speed of black powder, and is the burning 
popularly known as " exploding." 

At the end of this chapter I will describe twenty or more different 
modern powders. Nearly all of the twenty are necessary. Few could 
be dropped without a loss in accuracy, power, or other shooting quali- 
ties in certain cartridges. To state the matter in another way, differ- 
ent cartridges, barrels, bullets, and purposes require different powders. 
In the old black powder days of rifle shooting, which roughly may be 
denned as the period for a hundred years before 1885, the idea was 
to get an explosive — any explosive — and then to use that explosive in 
ways that might be devised. At the present time the idea is to secure 
an explosive that will fit the conditions of rifle and work under which 
it must be used. From the explosive ingredients, already named under 
the manufacture of powder, can be produced, within limits, any result 
desired. Thus it is no impossibility to manufacture a powder so easily 
fired that it is dangerous to handle, and so violent in action that it 
bursts the rifle barrel, while little more than expelling the bullet from 
the barrel. On the other hand, mixtures can be concocted which pos- 
sess no more capacity than black powder, and that are harder to 
ignite. The successful modern rifle powder must conform in nature 
and action to upwards of a dozen major specifications. 

The influence of the rifle, primer, and the bullet on the combustion 
of the powder must be understood before an intelligent selection can 
be made of a powder for any particular rifle and purpose. Briefly, the 
burning of a charge of smokeless powder should be completed by the 
time the bullet reaches the muzzle of the barrel. To accomplish this 
seemingly simple result, however, the powder must meet at least five 
conditions. First, each cartridge or load is intended to give a certain 
velocity to the bullet. To drive the particular bullet at the required 
speed requires a certain push or pressure, therefore the powder must 
burn uniformly, safely, and otherwise satisfactorily at this pressure. 
Second, only a certain limited period of time is available for the burning 
process, and this time is determined by the velocity of the bullet in 
the barrel, and by the length of the barrel. Thus the .30-40 Krag 
cartridge with 220-grain bullet at a standard muzzle velocity of 2000 
feet per second from a 30-inch barrel gives a much longer burn- 
ing period than the same cartridge loaded with 150- or 170-grain bullets 



296 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

at 2300 to 2600 feet and fired from a 24-inch barrel, hence one reason 
why the latter load should use a different powder from the former. 

Third, the powder must burn correctly, neither too slowly, too 
quickly, nor too violently, in the particular combustion chamber. A 
.45-70 or even a .32-40 shell, for example, presents a totally different 
problem from a .22 high-power shell. In the former the burning pow- 
der drives sraight away from the primer, while in the latter some of 
the hot, expanding gas is caused by the abrupt bottle neck to curve or 
churn back into itself, and into any powder not yet burning, with the 
result that the combustion is hastened and intensified. 

Fourth, the powder must ignite freely from the flame of suitable 
primers, and every grain must begin to burn, those in the front end of 
the charge as well as those in rear. Smokeless powder is harder to 
ignite than black powder, hence special primers are employed. It will 
be noticed that certain primers in the manufacturers' lists are marked 
" for smokeless powder " and these only should be used with this kind 
of powder. Even at that one or two of the earlier powders ignited 
so slowly that target shooters sometimes assisted the primers by loading 
in the bottom of the shell a few grains of black powder or other 
easily ignited powder. Yet smokeless powders are so sensitive to igni- 
tion that the hot flash of an inordinately strong primer runs the pres- 
sures up excessively. 

Fifth, the powder must ignite properly in the amount required for 
the charge. For example, the very small charge required in a .22 rim- 
fire, or .2)2 center-fire cartridge can be penetrated easily by the primer 
flash, or ignited throughout by self-generated heat without delay, but 
the large, long charge of a .45-70 or .30-1906 cartridge is harder to 
fire evenly and quickly. Even more important, the powder used in 
the small charge, if ignited in large amounts, flashes too quickly, and 
generates too much heat and pressure, while the correct powder for the 
large charge, in its own shell, fails to ignite or to burn completely 
when used in too small amounts. 

Summed up, these five factors taken together require that the powder 
ignite properly, and burn at the right pressure while developing the 
required velocity under the particular conditions of each rifle and car- 
tridge. When it burns at a higher or lower pressure a train of evil 
results follow, including unevenness, inaccuracy, lower velocity, metal 
fouling, and sometimes positive danger. Some of the first smokeless 
powders on the market, as for instance Hercules W. A., were designed 
for use in particular rifles and cartridges. When attempts were made 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 297 

to use' them in other cartridges they failed to give satisfaction. An 
example of this was the effort to use W. A. powder made for the 
.30-40-220 Krag cartridge in the .30-caliber Model 1906 cartridge 
which resulted poorly. A good cartridge came near being condemned 
because of the unsuitable powder used in it at the start. Until very 
recently numerous hunting cartridges were on the market which 
were inferior in one or more respects for the same reason, although 
they had much merit in design. 

FACTORS THAT CONTROL PRESSURE 

Various means are available for controlling the pressure at which 
the powder burns in the shell. Some of them are through the rifle and 
manner of loading, as by the amount of powder taken for the charge. 
As the charge is increased the pressure builds up faster than the 
proportionate weight. When heavy charges are used in such a way as 
to give pressures near the maximum limit for that powder or rifle, one 
or two grains more may cause a variation in several thousand pounds 
in the pressure generated. 

The influence of the shape of the combustion chamber on the burning 
of the powder, already mentioned, extends of course, to the pressures 
generated. To illustrate, the powder capacities of the .22 high- 
power shell, and the .401 Winchester self-loading shell are about the 
same, but each of necessity uses its own type of smokeless powder. If 
the charges be switched, the .401 bullet will be given but little velocity 
and the rifle action will fail to function, while the .22 high-power car- 
tridge will give dangerous pressure. In the straight shell of the .401 
the powder that is correct for the .22 high-power, fails to burn com- 
pletely, while in the severely bottle-necked shell of the .22 high-power 
the powder correct for the .401 churns its gases to enormous pres- 
sure. This example is extreme, and the above are two cartridges in 
which the powder cannot be exchanged at all. There are many other 
cartridges less radically different in which the shell shape clearly indi- 
cates the use of certain powders for best results, but in w r hich other 
powders can be used with fair satisfaction. 

The resistance of the bullet is another factor in controlling the 
pressure. A bullet that offers little resistance permits a powder 
charge to burn behind it with the minimum of pressure, while one 
that offers more resistance will cause the same powder charge to de- 
velop much higher pressure. Years ago when the first dense smoke- 
less powders were placed on the market the .45-70 cartridge was loaded 



298 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

with a certain one. The results were good when the' shell was 
heavily crimped, thus confining the powder gases in the shell until the 
combustion was more or less advanced. But this powder would give 
practically no velocity at all when the bullet was not tightly crimped, 
although the primer flash was strong enough to shove the bullet an 
inch or two into the barrel. 

Bullet resistance, in addition to crimp of shell, depends upon its 
weight, and on the friction developed in the barrel. The latter in 
turn depends upon the hardness of the alloy of which it is made, or the 
hardness of the metal of the jacket, on the length of bearing surface 
of the bullet in the barrel, on the depth of lands in the barrel, on the 
diameter of the bullet in relation to the size of the bore of the barrel, 
and on the amount of clearance about the neck of the shell and the front 
of the bullet. All these factors must be taken into account when a pow- 
der is designed or selected for any particular cartridge or loading. 

In the powder itself very important means of controlling pressures 
are available. Finely grained powder, of course, burns faster, and 
hence sets up higher pressures than coarse powder, just as the shav- 
ings burn faster and hotter in the limited time than the solid stick of 
wood. Black powder granulation was and is varied, but only as to 
size. Smokeless powder granulation is varied as much or more in 
size, and in addition is varied greatly as to shape of grain. Most of the 
Du Pont series of dense powders, for example, have grains the shape 
of short pieces of tube. They burn on the inside as well as the outside 
of the tube. These dense powder grains are very uniform in size, 
which means that they always burn the same within narrow limits. 
Some particular brands, however, are very fine, and they burn so fast 
that their combustion takes place at the maximum permissible speed 
and pressure, the only variation being due to the way in which the 
ignition happens to vary through the powder lying back against the 
primer without air space, or failing to fill the rear end of the shell 
completely, which may be a matter of the position of the cartridge, and 
elevation of the rifle barrel. 

Of almost equal importance in control of pressure is the composition 
of the powder. Some ingredients are capable of generating much 
greater volume of gases than others, grain for gtain, bulk for bulk. 
For instance, Du Pont No. i smokeless rifle powder cannot possibly 
give as much pressure as Du Pont No. 75, or as Hercules Unique, 
owing to the ingredients used. This is a direct strength comparison. 
Much more subtle differences exist, wherein the final pressure result- 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 299 

ing is not so- much a matter of actual concentration of potential gases 
as of the manner in which the ingredients used burn and give off 
their gases. The pressure generated by Hercules HiVel powder, for 
example, in correct charge in the .280 Ross cartridge is very much 
higher than the pressure of an equivalent charge of Du Pont No. 10 
powder, due to the different components ; while the pressure given by 
Du Pont No. 15 or 13 progressive powders to produce the same bullet 
velocities in this cartridge are lower yet, due to the difference in the 
way the more or less slightly varying components burn. The actual 
volume of gases with Nos. 10, 15, and 13 powders probably vary 
little. This matter of the way in which a powder burns deserves em- 
phasis, as on it hinges some of the most important distinctions between 
powders that are good and others that are better. Black powder 
and the finer grained smokeless powders burn like a flash, so to speak. 
They set up their maximum pressure right in the chamber, and exert 
force on the bullet largely in the form of a blow, followed by a de- 
creasing pressure as the bullet travels up the barrel. Other smokeless 
powders, such as Du Pont No. 20, Du Pont No. 21 and Du Pont No. 10, 
burn steadily, and are burned completely only when the bullet has 
reached the muzzle of the barrel, maintaining pressure on the bullet 
all the way up the barrel. Grains nearest the primer apparently are 
well onward in combustion before those at the front end of the charge 
are more than started, and it is these front grains, adding to the gases, 
which keep up the pressure. This type of powder is known as the 
" regular " burning kind. Still other powders, of more recent introduc- 
tion, such as the Du Pont Nos. 15, 16, 18, and 13, known as pro- 
gressive burning powders, apparently ignite throughout the charge as 
quickly as the regular burners, but burn more slowly, due to the 
way in which they are coated with a slower burning compound. Com- 
bustion is complete by the time the bullet reaches the muzzle, but from 
the time the bullet starts from the chamber the volume of gas steadily 
mounts higher and higher, the force being applied to the bullet more 
in the nature of a steadily increasing push than like a blow. 

In applying these various fundamental facts to the selection of a 
powder for a particular cartridge or load in any certain rifle barrel, we 
must, therefore, look for a chemical composition and shape and size 
of grain that will insure complete burning within the barrel length 
during the time available, and at the pressure required. Further- 
more, the burning must take place in the manner required to give the 
bullet used the essential velocity with the pressure permissible. To 






300 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

illustrate, a powder that will burn completely in a revolver, or even in a 
carbine of small caliber, with their lower pressure and short barrels, 
cannot possibly meet the conditions of full charges in long barrelled, 
high-power military or hunting rifles ; nor can a hot, violent powder 
be used where pressures must be high to get ultra high velocities. 

Each different size and shape of shell, each different weight, shape, 
and hardness of bullet, each different caliber and barrel length, de- 
velops a different pressure. From this comes the necessity of having 
so many different smokeless powders, and the necessity also of chang- 
ing the powder when any of the features of rifle, shell, and bullet are 
changed to any extent. If the powder is increased or decreased, the air 
space cut down much or decreased, bullet made heavier or lighter, 
harder or softer, larger or smaller, or barrel much shortened or 
lengthened, the kind of powder should be changed accordingly. 

NITROGLYCERINE AND NITROCELLULOSE POWDERS 

One of the most desirable qualities in a rifle powder is that it shall 
damage the steel of the barrel as little as possible. To insure this the 
powder must burn at as low a temperature as possible while developing 
necessary pressures. The temperature developed seems to depend 
more on the ingredients than on any other factor, and of the ingredients, 
nitrocellulose burns much cooler than nitroglycerine. One of the best 
illustrations of a hot burning nitroglycerine powder and its 
effects on the barrel is the old 1908 military powder (now duplicated 
by Du Pont No. 19, and Hercules HiVel. This powder was first 
brought out as an improvement on the old W. A. powder which had 
been used for so many years with success in the Krag cartridge. It 
was designed to be used in the then new .30 caliber Model 1906 car- 
tridge with 150-grain pointed bullet. So great was its damaging 
action on barrels that expert military riflemen frequently had to dis- 
card barrels for accurate work after only about 400 rounds had been 
fired from them, on account of the excessive erosion. Another ex- 
ample of the nitroglycerine type of powders is " Sharpshooter." The 
action of this powder, especially in small bore rifles using small shells, 
seems to be slightly different, in that corrosion is produced and not 
erosion, and this corrosion can sometimes be noted; in .25-20 rifles for 
example, after only 200 rounds have been fired. 

The nitrocellulose powders, on the other hand, do not damage the 
barrels nearly as much. Du Pont No. 20 can be fired in full charges 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 301 

in the .30-caliber Model 1903 rifle for from 5000 to 15,000 rounds 
before the accuracy of the barrel is seriously impaired, and it is re- 
ported from a number of tests that the newer progressive burning 
powders, Nos. 15, 18, 13, and 16, especially the two latter, produce 
little effect even in 20,000 rounds. 

Nitroglycerine powders damage the barrels by first softening the 
steel through heating, and then eroding or washing it away as a stream 
washes away its banks. The nitrocellulose powders burn cooler, and 
with them it is possible by increasing the charges to get higher velocities 
than ever before without serious erosion of the barrel. This matter 
of erosion is fully covered in Chapters XVII and XVIII. 

STABILITY, RESIDUE, AND UNIFORMITY OF BURNING 

Stability is essential in any powder. Some powders deteriorate 
through time, but it must be said that the majority of our American 
powders are splendid in this respect. Most of the modern military 
powders, at least, will keep in perfect condition for years in good 
storage, or when loaded in clean shells. A few powders will absorb 
moisture, among them Du Pont No. 1, No. 75, and Schuetzen. 
Powders that will not do this have the advantage. 

Stability against changes due to temperature is another important 
factor. Nitrocellulose powders are not affected much by any range 
of temperature encountered from pole to equator, but nitroglycerine 
powders are. So much are the exploding pressures of the latter 
type of powders increased by extremes of heat that cartridges loaded 
with them for use in the tropics have several grains less charge. 

The residue of a smokeless powder should be as little as possible, 
and should contain no hard lumps that may get into the chamber and 
prevent the cartridges seating readily, or into the breech action and 
interfere with the functioning of the rifle. The residue should be easily 
removed and non-corrosive as a further element of protection to the 
rifle bore. In this respect the new progressive burning powders ap- 
parently are superior to both the regular burning nitrocellulose and 
the nitroglycerine powders. Nearly all modern powders are graphited, 
with the result that the residue they leave in the barrel has lubricating 
properties of some value. 

Uniformity of burning depends somewhat on composition, but more 
on evenness of granulation and character of grain. Nearly all modern 
powders are excellent in this respect. Uniformity, however, is secured 



302 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

only within the range of normal working pressure for each powder. 
When such pressure is exceeded, or when less is developed, the burn- 
ing becomes erratic and unreliable. 

Muzzle flash, fumes, and smoke are objectionable to some extent. 
From a military standpoint a flash betrays the location of the firing 
troops at night. 

BULK POWDERS 

Concentration of powder deserves more than passing attention. 
Present day powders are of two distinct types, " bulk powders " and 
" dense powders." Bulk powders are the oldest, having been intro- 
duced in America about 1894, while the true dense powders were 
unknown to most riflemen until about 1899, although various govern- 
ments, including the United States, had used different types of dense 
military powders before that time in small-bore, military rifles. 

The first satisfactory smokeless rifle powder was introduced by the 
Du Pont Company in 1894. This was a bulk powder known as the 
Du Pont No. 1 rifle smokeless. In those early days of smokeless 
powder no rifleman or shotgun shooter overlooked a reloading outfit 
when purchasing a new arm. Normally included in the price of every 
shotgun was included a three-joint cleaning rod, and a complete outfit 
for reloading shells. Every rifle manufacturer listed reloading tools 
in his catalogue, and stores generally sold tools, and no one wasted 
time or breath in ridiculous cautions or warnings against reloading. 
With every set of tools, whether for rifle or shotgun, came the con- 
ventional dipper, or " scoop " for measuring out the proper charge 
of black powder. Naturally early smokeless powders received the re- 
ception accorded to every new thing, including percussion caps in 
flint-lock days, the breech loader later on, the magazine rifle still more 
recently, and the small-bore, high power rifle even today among less 
informed hunters. The " old timers " loved to cling to their ancient 
customs and beliefs. Many were the objections against the new 
" white " or " wood " powder. " It was not as strong as black 
powder." " It rusted the barrel." " You could not use the same 
caps." " It did not keep well." And a host of other minor com- 
plaints. But at the start the manufacturers wisely eliminated one 
factor that would have been a real complaint, and that would have 
caused endless trouble in those " black powder days." They made, 
the first smokeless powders measure bulk for bulk with black powder 
so far as strength or correct charges were concerned. The old scoops 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 303 

or other measures could be used to measure out the charges without 
special directions or precautions. The proper charges occupied 
exactly the same space as the displaced charges of black powder, hence 
the name "bulk powder." 

In developing and perfecting these early bulk powders the manu- 
facturers were naturally greatly handicapped by the limitations of the 
rifles of that day. Pressures in excess of 28,000 pounds per square 
inch were unheard of, barrels were of soft steel, bullets were of 
smaller diameter than the rifle bore (dependence being placed on the 
blow of black powder explosion to " upset " them and properly seal 
the bore), and other minor difficulties obstructed progress. The 
pressure limit was met by producing powders that burned properly 
and uniformly under the imposed conditions. Soft barrels were taken 
care of by using practically the present cool burning nitrocellulose 
composition. Some complaints against the inaccuracy of the new 
powders developed until the shooters were educated to the fact that 
smokeless powder lacked' the initial blow of black powder that upset 
the bullet and filled the bore, and that therefore bullets of slightly 
greater diameter were required. Attention was called to the fact that 
the corroding of rifle barrels, when using the new powders, was 
brought on by a different type of fouling, a fouling as easily removed 
as that of black powder, but demanding different methods of clean- 
ing and solvents. These points are even more vital today than at 
first. It was gradually found that the new product could be sub- 
stituted for almost any black powder charge with advantage. This 
explains the origin and meaning of the term " bulk " powder. 

The bulk powders are of a fibrous, porous nature. They might 
be termed " soft grained " also, as the grains can be crushed between 
the fingers. The grains are of no such symmetrical and non-varying 
shape as those of dense powder ; some are round while others are 
exceedingly irregular in outline, resembling the old time Fg black 
powder. 

In the manufacture of bulk smokeless powders, as described on 
previous pages, the large cakes of combined ingredients are broken up 
in crushers instead of being forced through dies and made into tubes 
as are dense powders. The small particles resulting vary in size 
from dust to the size of small buck shot. These particles are then 
passed through various screens, and only the desired granulation is 
retained. For instance Du Pont No. 1 rifle smokeless is sifted through 
a mesh of 16 to the inch, and caught on screens having 26 meshes 



304 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

to the inch. All the powder retained between these two screens is 
of proper granulation, but any failing to pass through the top one is 
too coarse, and all that falls through the bottom is too fine. On 
the same basis sporting rifle powder No. 80 is termed a 34-56 granula- 
tion. 

The rate of burning of bulk powders is not as easily controlled 
as that of dense brands, because of the soft, irregular grains, with- 
out perforation. Size of grain and composition are the only factors 
that can be manipulated to determine the rate of combustion. The 
porous nature of the grains of most bulk powders renders them more 
susceptible to atmospheric changes, also to the deteriorating effect of 
dirt in old shells, than the dense powders. These are practically the 
only logical complaints that today can be laid against bulk powders. 
They will absorb moisture if stored and handled under improper con- 
ditions. How keenly the manufacturers realized this point is shown 
by the improvements in Du Pont sporting rifle powder No. 80, the latest 
and most modern bulk powder. This brand has been modernized by 
the addition of an ingredient that to a great extent prevents its absorb- 
ing moisture or responding to atmospheric changes. Personally I am 
unable to see where it does so in the least, as I have had a large 
amount of this powder with me in the Panama Canal Zone for over 
two years, and have not been able to notice the slightest deteriora- 
tion, despite the fact that some of this powder was stored in 8-gauge, 
paper, shotgun shells, in which containers it had been shipped to 
Panama so that it would come under the express rating of loaded 
cartridges and not as powder. Unless it becomes actually wet I do 
not believe it will be affected at all by atmospheric changes. As a 
matter of fact if common sense is used in the storage of any bulk 
powder it will not be affected by moisture. Such powder stored in 
an open wood shed, or in a cellar cannot be expected to give normal 
results. 

When bulk powders are loaded into fired shells that are dirty 
from previous firing, and the loaded cartridges are then not fired for 
a considerable length of time, they will gradually deteriorate. If fired 
at once, or within a month or two, no bad results will be noted. If 
the loaded ammunition is to be kept for a greater period care should 
be taken to clean and thoroughly dry the shells before loading. The 
best methods of cleaning fired shells are described in Chapter XIII. 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 305 

DENSE POWDERS 

Events moved fast with the powder makers in the '90s. The small- 
bore rifle shooting a light-weight, long, metal- jacketed bullet at high 
velocities was taken up by all governments. The sporting trade, fall- 
ing into line, soon demanded rifles lighter in weight than those of 
.44-40 and .45-70 caliber that they had been regarding as the best. 
It was not enough to make these same rifles and cartridges smokeless. 
Powders of greater power or concentration were in order, so that the 
ammunition could be lightened and power increased. The manu- 
facturers responded with a new, small-bore, high-power rifle, and a 
new type of smokeless powder occupying less shell space, and develop- 
ing a much higher velocity. So these concentrated or high potential 
powders were soon known as condensed or " dense " powders. 

The actual formulae of different dense powders vary widely as has 
already been explained, but all American powders of this type have 
a similar appearance and structure. Their grains are of a hard, gelat- 
inous, or celluloid material, moulded and formed in the shape of 
small tubes or perforated cylinders, and colored shiny black on the 
outside with graphite. 

Dense powders vary widely in strength, so we must not get the 
idea that the term " dense " represents any set standard. The tendency 
is to produce powders more dense and concentrated than ever. How- 
ever, this in itself is not always a desirable characteristic unless ac- 
companied by other equally essential features. To illustrate, 
" Sharpshooter " powder, one of the older powders, is undoubtedly 
the most highly concentrated of all rifle powders, much more so than 
Du Pont No. 10. But Sharpshooter exerts its potential strength 
in a manner so inferior to No. 10 that with it maximum practical 
velocities of but 2000 feet per second are possible, while the velocities 
normally obtained with No. 10 are 3000 feet per second. 

Dense powders possess undoubted points of superiority over the 
bulk brands. They are far more stable, are waterproof, are not af- 
fected by atmospheric conditions, permit the obtaining of higher 
velocities, and due to their peculiar grain construction and method 
of manufacture allow more perfect control in burning. As has been 
stated, all dense powders of American manufacture are made in a 
distinctive type of grain, resembling short lengths of small tubing. 
Some have grains resembling washers ; that is, the length of grain 
is less than the diameter ; others have grains longer than thick. The 



306 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

perforations or holes through the center of the grains are usually 
about the size of a needle hole in the nitroglycerine brands, and smaller 
than this in the nitrocellulose powders. This peculiar shape of grain 
permits control of the rate of burning impossible of attainment by 
any other means. Where the bulk powder can burn from the out- 
side to the center of grain only, the dense powder burns from both 
outside and inside surfaces. Varying the diameter and length of 
grain and the diameter of the perforation gives a large factor of con- 
trol over the burning. 

Modern dense powders are not handicapped by the limitations of the 
rifle as were the earlier bulk powders. Rifles are now constructed with 
much stronger breech actions. The barrels are now made of harder 
steel of high tensile strength and capable of standing high pressures. 
Pressures are now limited only by the strength of the brass cartridge 
case, which may be placed at a limit of 70,000 pounds in rifles having 
the ordinary commercial or military chamber, and 80,000 pounds in 
rifles constructed with perfectly fitting chambers and perfected firing 
pins designed for high pressures. 

Dense powders, as previously noted, are divided into nitroglycerine 
and nitrocellulose types, and the latter type into regular and progres- 
sive burning types. Nitroglycerine powders are the older and are 
inferior to nitrocellulose for most purposes. Their chief fault lies 
in the high temperatures at which they burn, and their chief advan- 
tage in the even velocities which they give. Another serious fault 
is that they are not as stable as the more modern nitrocellulose powders, 
and this point is especially noticeable in Arctic and Tropical regions. 
They are also erratic when burning at pressures exceeding 43,000 
to 45,000 pounds. Their good features are that in certain cartridges 
of medium power, when no effort is made to get very high velocities, 
they develop 1500 pounds lower pressure than with nitrocellulose 
powders used for equal velocities, and do this with one to one and 
one-half grains smaller charge. They also ignite a shade easier than 
the nitrocellulose brands. The greatest handicap under which nitro- 
glycerine powders labor is the limit of velocities obtainable. I do not 
know of a cartridge loaded with a nitroglycerine powder that will 
develop more than 2100 or 2200 feet velocity without incurring 
pressures so high that erosion immediately becomes too serious to 
overlook. In this nitrocellulose powders demonstrate one great 
superiority, giving velocities of 3000 to 3200 feet per second at 
pressures of 55,000 to 60,000 pounds, and still give no great trouble 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 307 

from erosion. The temperature developed at these extreme pressures 
is still far below that generated by nitroglycerine powders burning at a 
pressure of only 40,000 pounds. 

The minor objections (they can hardly be termed faults) to nitro- 
cellulose powders are that they require slightly larger charges than 
nitroglycerine powders, and that the pressures run slightly higher in 
a few instances. In my opinion the cost of these increased charges 
is offset many times over by the saving in the wear on the rifle barrel, 
while the- insignificant increase in pressures amounts to nothing with 
the nickel steel barrels and locking lugs of today. If one uses only 
the best of primers with these powders, like the United States 
Cartridge Co. No. 8, and the United States Government primer no 
trouble with ignition will be noticed. The newer types, the progres- 
sive powders, have all the good points of the type, but develop greatly 
increased velocities with no appreciable increase in pressures. In 
addition cleaning is easier when they are used, and there is less erosion. 
Take for example Du Pont No. 16 powder in the .32 Winchester special 
cartridge. A charge of 32.5 grains weight of powder gives a velocity 
of 2225 feet per second, with a pressure of less than 36,000 pounds, 
and the erosive effects are so small that the life of the barrel is practi- 
cally limitless. There is no, metal fouling, and cleaning is a very 
simple proposition if any of the powder solvent oils are used. 

COMPRESSING SMOKELESS POWDERS 

A warning spread broadcast in the early days of smokeless powder 
by the makers of bulk powders was, " Never compress a charge." 
So thoroughly was this doctrine impressed on the minds of riflemen 
that I hear it echoed from many sources today. A little explanation 
will clear up the situation, and show that in part the warning is sound, 
and in part it is false. Such clearing up is necessary because many 
of the charges recommended in the preceding chapter fill the shells 
so full that some compression is necessary to permit the bullets to be 
seated. 

The facts are that the actual compression of smokeless powder, bulk 
and dense, does no harm. What did cause the trouble was that the 
soft grains of bulk powders crumbled to dust when kept under com- 
pression more than a few days by the bullets. Such dust burns at 
tremendously increased speed, and runs up the chamber pressure 
above the margin of safety. This " margin of safety " was not high 
in the days of .44-40, .38-56, and .45-70 black-powder rifles with 



308 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

soft-steel barrels and lead bullets. A charge which does not overflow 
the shell, if tapped several times, should permit sufficient compression 
for seating the bullet without alarming increase in pressure. The 
majority of dense powders are so hard that the grains will not crumble 
even when retained under pressure for a long time, hence such 
powders may be loaded tightly in shells without any change result- 
ing by reason of the packing. Compression does no harm to such 
powders as the entire series of the Du Pont military and improved 
military powders, the W. A. .30-caliber, HiVel, and others. Sharp- 
shooter powder should never be compressed. These powders ignite 
and burn slowly at the start, allowing the bullet time to move from 
the shell before the height of the pressure wave is reached. 

Here it is necessary to call attention to some exceptions to the 
general rule. In the beginning of this chapter it was pointed out 
that every powder was given certain special treatments to give it 
peculiar properties of its own. As a result, certain powders are 
rendered so quick and violent in action under conditions other than 
those for which they were designed, that they must have air space 
in the shell for safety. Sharpshooter is one such, Bull's-eye, Unique, 
Pistol Powder No. 3, Rifle Powder No. 75, and in some instances 
Lightning, are others. Some of these powders demand air space be- 
cause of high potential strength and others because they burn exceed- 
ingly fast, reaching their maximum pressure in the chamber of the 
rifle. Caution must be exercised against compressing them, and it 
may be added that they give proper and normal results only when 
loaded with greater or less air space. 

CHANGING BULLETS 

There are many cartridges on the market which have much merit, 
but which were designed just before many of the more important 
recent improvements and advancements became settled facts. Owners 
of rifles fqr these cartridges continually manifest a desire to bring 
their shooting up to present standards, so far as possible, by modifica- 
tions of powder charge and bullet. I will make no effort to discuss 
this almost limitless subject at length here, but will simply point out 
that powder and bullets correct for every American cartridge in 
common use today are mentioned and described in the preceding 
chapter, where the reader will find the proper charge for each bullet, 
together w 7 ith the velocity and pressure generated. From the point 
of view of the powder used, care must be taken to select the powder 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 309 

in each case that will burn completely at the pressure required to drive 
the bullet at the desired velocity. Great care must be taken to select 
a powder suited to the resistance offered by the exact bullet used. 
For instance, in the Krag rifle the regular 220-grain bullet gives more 
resistance, owing to long bearing surface and weight, and if the 
150-grain bullet is used the powder must be the quick burning No. 
21, No. 16, or No. 18, rather than the old standard W. A. which 
cannot possibly burn completely behind this bullet. Whenever a new 
bullet is to be loaded in any cartridge full attention should be given 
to all the factors involved, including weight, hardness, bearing surface, 
lubrication, and other points. 

MEASURING MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 

Owing to the shape and size of grain of many smokeless powders, 
they cannot be measured accurately enough for best, or even safe, 
results with scoops or the Ideal measure. Some, it is true, can be 
measured satisfactorily; others can be measured in light and medium 
charges, but should be weighed in maximum charges ; while still others 
cannot be measured at all. In general, bulk powders can be measured, 
while dense powders should be weighed, though there are exceptions 
to this rule. It is pretty safe to say that no rifleman who loads dense 
powders can get satisfactory results without a pair of scales for use 
at least to check his measuring. Weighing always should be done 
when great accuracy is desired, when extreme velocities are to be 
obtained, and when the rifleman is experimenting; also for all coarse 
grained powders, although some finer ones can be measured. 

The extent of the error or variation in charge that is permissible 
when ordinary pressures and velocities are obtained, is about one- 
half grain. This, however, forms a larger proportion of a small charge 
than of a large one, and may produce larger target errors. When high 
pressures and velocities are to be obtained the extent of the error 
should be limited to one-fifth of a grain, and such limitation calls for 
careful weighing. A variation of one-half grain in the powder charge 
of the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge has been observed to cause 
an error of one inch per 100 yards of range, that is an error of ten 
inches at 1000 yards. The Ideal powder measure will permit of such 
an error with Du Pont No. 20 powder, hence ammunition with 
measured powder charges will be less accurate to this extent than 
ammunition with powder accurately hand weighed. 

The equivalent table given in the next chapter comparing bulk 



3 io THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

measure as measured with the Ideal measure with actual weight of 
the charge is as accurate as it can be made, but is subject to un- 
avoidable errors. For instance, the stampings of the marks on the 
slides of the Ideal measure often vary slightly. Of fine grained 
powders in small loads, this table will enable a careful person to 
throw charges from the measure that will be accurate to within 
one-fourth grain. With the coarser grained dense, powders the 
most careful setting of the measure in connection with the table can- 
not be depended upon to within 3 to 5 grains. It is impossible, except 
by chance, to set the measure successfully for the same charge 
twice. The Ideal measure, however, if set carefully and adjusted 
by checking with scales, will throw most powders accurately to within 
half a grain. The method of using this measure i:i connection with 
scales, and instructions for weighing powder with scales, are given 
in the next chapter. 

Dip measures or scoops can be used with fair satisfaction for the 
bulk powders if handled carefully. If jarred, they must always re- 
ceive a blow of exactly the same weight in the same direction. It 
is possible to vary the contents of a 40-grain scoop as much as five 
to ten grains simply by filling without jarring, or by jarring. Scoops 
and measures for smokeless powder should always be checked with 
scales. Any rifleman who does not own a pair of his own should 
request the nearest druggist to verify the measure he uses with the 
weight of the powder to be measured. Suitable scales for measuring 
powder are described in the next chapter. 

The powders that should always be weighed are the Du Pont 
powders Nos. 10, 13, 15, 19, and 20, and Hercules HiVel. Pistol 
Powder No. 3, Bull's-eye, and other similar powders measure evenly 
once the measure is set for them, but they are so concentrated that a 
slight error in the charge is magnified, consequently the measure 
should be checked with scales frequently. Powders that can be 
measured with satisfaction are Du Pont Nos. 1, 75, 80, and Schuetzen. 
It will be noted that these powders are of the short grained, bulk 
type. 

The Ideal measure slide screw will not hold the slides from move- 
ment with certainty. Charges therefore should be tested on scales 
every hundred rounds to detect movement and variation. To get 
some of the larger charges that are recommended in the foregoing 
chapter into their shells considerably more compacting can be ob- 
tained without compression by dropping the powder in from some 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 311 

distance. A loading tube 6 to. 12 inches long should be used for 
this purpose. 

IDENTIFICATION OF POWDERS 

It is best not to try to identify powders offhand by their appear- 
ance. To do so may result in trouble, and perhaps even in danger. 
The grains of some of the more modern powders are almost identical 
in shape and size, and even attempts to identify them by measure- 
ment of the grain by a micrometer caliper is by no means certain. 
It is best to depend on canister labels, and in order that no mistake 
may arise it has been my habit for some years always to paste a 
slip of blank paper over the label on a can as soon as I empty it, so 
that if I happen to use that can for powder again I will not make 
any mistake. It does not pay to take any chances with powder, and 
the rifleman should cultivate careful methods from the start when 
handling them. 

It is possible to load double charges of powder in some shells with- 
out the error being observed. In some instances this will result only 
in wild shooting, with perhaps leading or metal fouling of the barrel. 
In other cases it will result in developing excessive pressures, and may 
even burst the rifle. Particular care should be taken in this connection 
when the following powders are used: Sharpshooter, Bull's-eye, 
Pistol No. 3, Unique, Lightning, and Du Pont No. 75. 

POWDERS FOR REDUCED LOADS 

in selecting a powder for a lighter load than the standard in any 
rifle and cartridge, the governing principles are to get a powder that 
burns completely within the barrel length at the required pressure, 
and that otherwise conforms to the laws as explained in previous 
pages. However, numerous special factors must be taken into con- 
sideration. For light loads, particularly in high power rifles, Du Pont 
No. 75 and 80 powders will prove the best in a majority of cases. 
For mid-range loads with gas-check or jacketed bullets the range 
of selection is wider, and includes Sharpshooter, Lightning, and Du 
Pont Nos. 80, 21, and 18, and possibly others. Accuracy is the prime 
requisite, and tests and experiments are the only means of learning 
about this. One rifle may handle a load that another will not. 
Barrels also vary. 

Poor burning is to be avoided because it leaves unburned powder 
in the barrel, chamber, and action that will give fouling trouble 
and prevent the accurate seating of the cartridge. It is possible, how- 



3 i2 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

ever, in some cases to get accuracy from charges that do not burn 
completely. For instance Du Pont No. 18 powder in the .30-caliber, 
Model 1906 cartridge will not burn completely in charges of 20 to 
25 grains, but will shoot with exceeding accuracy with proper bullets. 
Even No. 21 in charges of the same weight gives good results in this 
and similar cartridges. 

When other things are equal, preference should be given to nitro- 
cellulose powders over nitroglycerine ones. Many claim that in re- 
duced charges, and at less than extreme pressures, these powders do 
not erode barrels any more than those of milder type, but my personal 
experience does not lead to such conclusions. The powder charges 
recommended in the Ideal Handbook for short-range, reduced loads 
in high-power rifles are in the main correct, but in some instances 
those recommended for reduced charges are impracticable and in- 
accurate because too heavy for the bullets indicated. In the preced- 
ing chapter I have given many reduced charges for various cartridges 
that have been tried in a number of rifles for that cartridge and 
found satisfactory. In auto-loading rifle cartridges Sharpshooter 
and other similar powders are often loaded with compressed charges. 
Such loading is permissible and safe because the breech of an auto- 
loading rifle instantly blows back when the pressure mounts to a cer- 
tain point. This is a feature of the normal functioning of such rifles. 

SHORT AND LONG BARRELS 

The length of barrel of the rifle, as has been pointed out from 
various angles, has much bearing on the shooting of its cartridge. 
This matter is not generally understood. For instance, the normal or 
standard velocity with the Krag rifle with its standard .30-40-220 
cartridge is 2000 feet per second, the rifle having a 30-inch barrel. 
With the Krag carbine, the barrel of which is only 22 inches long, 
the velocity falls off 80 feet. The shortening of some barrels, notably 
the Ross .280, has even more effect than this. Such decrease in 
velocity means an increase in trajectory and bullet drop. More than 
this, it may be accompanied by other evils. 

When the barrel length is shortened or lengthened, it is well to 
examine the powder charge to see if a change should not be made 
in it also to obtain the best results. Shortening the barrel may not 
only reduce the velocity, but the powder may fail to burn completely, 
and this may bring inaccuracy. 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 313 

I once heard of a man who cut down the 28-inch barrel of a Ross 
.280 rifle to 22 inches, whereupon the standard .280 Ross cartridge, 
loaded with Du Pont No. 10 powder developed nowhere near the 
normal 3050 feet velocity, gave poor accuracy, and left much hard, 
unburned powder in the barrel and chamber. The use of a quicker 
burning powder, Du Pont No. 20, partly restored the velocity but 
not the accuracy. No. 15, however, almost completely restored both. 
Applying this same principle to the Krag again, the maximum velocity 
of which the .30-inch barrel is capable will probably be secured with 
Du Pont No. 16 powder, while the maximum velocity of which the 
22-inch carbine barrel is capable will probably be secured with Du 
Pont No. 18. Many riflemen must face this condition in respect to 
other calibers, particularly those who use cartridges of the same 
caliber loaded for both revolver and rifle, and those who use short- 
barreled carbines. A carbine may perform very poorly with the 
usual commercial ammunition, but its shooting usually can be greatly 
improved by selecting the proper grade and amount of powder for its 
barrel length. 

DIFFERENT LOTS OF THE SAME POWDER 

Every powder user has noticed the manufacturers' references to 
" lots " of powder, and many may have noted that slightly varying 
charges of different lots are recommended. For instance, one lot of 
Du Pont No. 20 may give the standard muzzle velocity of 2700 
feet in the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge with a charge of 46 
grains, and another may require 48 grains, while a third may give it 
with 44 grains. Smokeless powder is made in lots of the capacity of 
the equipment of the powder mill. Two thousand pounds used to be 
the average at the Du Pont works, but this has now been increased 
to take care of the necessary war output, to 50,000 pounds. Due 
to any one or more of a hundred variations that are possible in in- 
gredients and in processes, two different lots may come out, showing 
slightly varying density or rate of burning. Each lot is tested by fir- 
ing, and its actual performance in different rifles is made a matter 
of record. Within each lot variation is impossible, for all of every 
lot is blended, as the term goes, by spilling it from the top of high 
towers to piles below. The individual does not need to concern him- 
self much about varying lots of powder, for the manufacturers sell 
to the trade only such lots as conform to the standard for that par- 



314 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

ticular powder. Other lots are used by the cartridge loading com- 
panies who know how to allow for the difference in the density and 
burning. 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF COMMERCIAL POWDERS 

We now come to a consideration of each of the various kinds of 
powder commonly used in American rifles. On the following pages 
will be found a description of each kind of powder, its characteristics, 
and the uses to which it is best adapted. 

DU PONT MILITARY RIFLE POWDER NO. 20 

Also known as " 1909 Military Powder " and " Government Pyro, 
.30 caliber D. G." This history-making rifle powder was the first 




Fig. 77 

Combination rifle and shotgun made for Hon. Theodore Roosevelt by Fred 

Adolph. Top barrel 20 gauge shotgun, lower barrel .25-35 W. C. F. 

of the nitrocellulose type to give unquestioned satisfactory service. 
It was developed during 1908 and 1909 by E. I. du Pont de Nemours 
& Co. At that time nitroglycerine powders were standard in spite of 
their erosive properties, the nitrocellulose powders still being in a 
somewhat debatable stage, owing to the fact that no stabilizer had 
been introduced into their composition. The 1909 Military powder, 
as No. 20 was then called, showed American riflemen what an ideal 
powder should be, and started the demand for the still greater im- 
provements that have been so abundantly met in the years since its 
introduction. 

No. 20 is a dense nitrocellulose powder of the regular burning 
type, with shiny black tubular grains .085 inch long and .03 inch in 
diameter. It was developed specifically for use in the .30-caliber, 
Model 1906 cartridge to replace the unstable " Rose-aniline " pyro 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 315 

powder of a pink color which the Government had been using in an 
effort to get away from the evils of nitroglycerine. 

No. 20 is adapted for use in cartridges of .30 caliber and smaller, 
and even in some .35 and .40 caliber cartridges, notably the .405 
W. C. F. It has a wide range of usefulness among both sporting and 
military cartridges of medium power and capacity. Its normal burn- 
ing pressure is 45,000 to 50,000 pounds. It will burn fairly well at 
55,000 pounds without developing much trouble, and at pressures con- 
siderably lower than 40,000 pounds in some cartridges, notably the 
steeply tapered bottle-neck class. The velocities developed in this 
powder primarily are those of the 2700 foot class with 150-grain 
bullet in the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge. In doing this the 
powder is working under the exact conditions for which it was de- 
signed, and it works to best advantage. In many other cartridges, 
however, it develops their standard velocities in a very satisfactory 
manner, such as the 7 mm. Mauser, .25 Remington auto-loading, and 
.22 high-power Savage. 

No. 20 is in the same series as Du Pont No. 10 and No. 21, occupy- 
ing a position midway between them as to burning speed. All three 
powders are of the same composition, and differ only in size of grain. 
As soon as No. 20 reached the general market it displaced nitroglycerine 
powders entirely among careful riflemen who loaded their own am- 
munition, and of course entirely displaced the original and inferior 
nitrocellulose without stabilizer, the manufacture of which has been 
discontinued. It educated riflemen to the advantages of nitro- 
cellulose powders and started them to demand it, and it also taught 
powdermakers how to proceed to secure the variety of excellent 
powders that have since been brought out. 

An advantage of No. 20 is that it develops extreme accuracy at 
2700 feet velocity with 150-grain bullet in the Springfield and Enfield 
rifles. Before this powder was brought out no such accuracy was 
known. It is not suited for securing the increased velocities over 
the standard that are now possible with the progressive burning 
powders. While it can be measured by the Ideal powder measure 
and otherwise, charges should be weighed where great accuracy is 
desired. The variation in weight of charge secured by measuring 
are not great enough to cause serious inaccuracy, nor to develop 
pressures lower or higher than permissible limits for good and safe 
results. It burns at a low temperature, ignites readily, and leaves a 
residue that is easily removed with proper solvents. Reduced charges 



316 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



cannot be loaded with No. 20, nor can any but metal jacketed bullets 
be used with it. 

DU PONT MILITARY RIFLE POWDER NO. 21 

After Du Pont No. 20 powder proved to be so successful in the 
.30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge, and other cartridges of a similar 
nature, there was a great demand for a nitrocellulose powder that 
would burn at the proper rate for small-bore sporting cartridges of 
limited shell capacity like the .30-30, .32 Special, and .25-35. This 
demand was brought to a head by the introduction of the .22 Savage 
High Power cartridge and rifle, in the firing of which barrels some- 




Fig. 78 
Double barrelled elephant rifle with German telescope sight, made by 

Fred Adolph 

times lasted only about 300 rounds before the bore was badly eroded 
when nitroglycerine powders were used. 

No. 21 is a dense nitrocellulose powder of the regular burning type 
with the usual tubular, perforated, black, graphited grains .04 inch 
long and .03 inch thick. In composition it is identical with No. 20 
and No. 10, but is the quickest burning of the three, therefore it will 
burn at lower pressures than the others. It was developed during 
1913, and put on the general market in 1914. This powder has a 
very wide range. Its best burning takes place at 36,000 to 41,000 
pounds pressure to the square inch, but it will burn with fair satis- 
faction at higher and lower pressures. It develops standard velocities 
in all the 2000 foot seconds cartridges, including the .25-35, .30-30, 
.303 Savage, and .7,2 Special, gives 2800 feet velocity in the .22 Savage 
High Power, and 3000 feet in the .250-3000 Savage cartridge. In 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 317 

addition it may be used in emergencies in the .30-caliber, Model 1906 
cartridge, the .30-40 cartridge, and others of similar size and power, 
and it may be used with considerable satisfaction for mid-range loads 
behind gas-check or metal-cased bullets giving 1400 to 2000 feet 
velocity. For the latter purpose it provides a nitrocellulose substitute 
for the erosive nitroglycerine powders formerly recommended, 
though in such loading is perhaps not always quite as good as the 
Du Pont No. 18. 

The advantages of No. 21 are that it gives great accuracy, is easy 
to clean, burns at low temperature, measures so well in the Ideal 
measure that while weighing is still an advantage charges can be 
secured by measuring with much satisfaction. It is the most flexible 
of the regular burning nitrocellulose powders, that is to say, it can 
be used with a greater range of pressures, and it may be used in the 
greatest number of cartridges. 

No. 21 greatly resembles No. 18 in grain appearance, hence care 
is necessary to avoid getting the two mixed. This is doubly important 
because the charges of each powder are by no means the same for 
identical cartridges. Those using No. 21 should confine themselves 
to the standard velocities. To increase charges is to invite trouble, 
and besides it is unnecessary because where a quick burning powder 
is needed to give ultra-high velocities Du Pont No. 18 will work 
better. 

DU PONT MILITARY RIFLE POWDER NO. 10 

When the Ross Rifle Company of Quebec developed the .280 
cartridge they found that its resulting velocity was limited by the 
nature of the burning of all powders then available. The shell is of 
very large capacity, and is steeply bottle-necked, both factors making 
for intensity of burning of powder in full charges. What was needed 
was slower burning powder possessing the non-erosive and other good 
qualities of Du Pont No. 20. Accordingly No. 10 was developed 
specially for the .280 Ross cartridge, and results at once justified the 
effort. Velocities up to 3100 feet at the muzzle were secured with 
the 143-grain bullet, and 2700 feet with the 180-grain bullet. So 
accurate was the new powder that the list of matches it won stands 
today almost unrivaled. 

No. 10 is a dense nitrocellulose powder of the regular burning 
type with tubular granulation .12 inch long by .033 inch thick. It 
will be noted that these grains are half again as long as those of the 
Du Pont No. 20 powder. They are the longest grains made in any 



3 i8 THE AMERICAN RIFLE '.. 

nitrocellulose powder intended for rifles. The composition of No. 
io is the same as that of Nos. 20 and 21, with which it forms a 
series, occupying the position of the slowest burning. In fact it is 
the slowest burning of all dense powders. It was in 1910 that this 
powder was first manufactured, but not until 1912 was it placed on 
the market in cans. The pressures required to burn it properly are 
52,000 to 57,000 pounds. It will not burn properly at lower pressure, 
although it will stand considerably higher ones without trouble. Its 
use, therefore, is restricted to the most modern of cartridges and rifles 
which develop and safely stand pressures up to 60,000 pounds. 
Until the introduction of the Newton series of cartridges, the .280 
Ross was the only cartridge in which it could be used with success. 
In the .256 Newton it has proved to give good results, developing a 
velocity of about 2850 feet. It may also be used in the .30 Newton 
cartridge. 

No. -io should aways be loaded by weight because the grains are 
too large to pass through any measure with accuracy. Only metal- 
jacketed bullets can be used with it. I do not look for this powder 
to remain in general use much longer. Whatever is required of it 
can be done better by the modern progressive powders such as the 
Du Pont Nos. 13 and 15. These powders develop the same velocity 
as No. 10 with less pressure, or higher velocities with equal pressure. 

DU PONT IMPROVED MILITARY RIFLE POWDER NO. 15 

This was the first of the new series of powders put on the market — 
the first progressive burning, smokeless, rifle powder ■ — and it was this 
powder which opened the eyes of riflemen all over the world to the 
possibilities of improvement along the lines of increasing bullet veloci- 
ties without increasing pressures. 

No. 15 is a dense, progressive burning, nitrocellulose powder, with 
the usual black tubular grain, measuring .085 inch long by .035 inch in 
diameter. It looks very much like Du Pont No. 20, although the grains 
are slightly thicker. Its resemblance to other members of the pro- 
gressive burning series is even closer, and riflemen should be careful to 
avoid confusing it with them should it become separated from its regu- 
lar canister. 

It was issued to the trade in the autumn of 1914, but did not become 
generally known until 191 5. Its origin is very interesting. A special 
experimental cartridge was designed for a foreign government, with 
new features from primer to bullet. None of the existing powders were 








Fig. 75 
Grains of modern rifle powders, greatly enlarged 

1. Du Pont Improved Military Rifle Powder No. 13 

2. Du Pont Improved Military Rifle Powder No. 15 

3. Du Pont Improved Military Rifle Powder No. 16 

319 



320 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

considered satisfactory for use in it since they could not be expected to 
give results superior to those which they gave in well known cartridges, 
hence a new powder with hitherto unknown qualities was required. 
The cartridge was of .30-caliber with a shell resembling the .30-caliber 
Model 1906, and carried a pointed bullet weighing 180 grains. The 
rifle barrel was 30 inches long. This cartridge with the new powder 
that was designed for it proved to give a velocity of 2800 feet at the 
muzzle, with a pressure of 55,000 pounds. The best previous similar 
result achieved in a practical way was about 2500 feet muzzle velocity 
in the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge with similar pressure. At once 
the new powder was tried in various older cartridges, with the results 
that the now famous 2925 foot muzzle velocity load with this powder 
was found to be just as practical as the regular standard load. 

No. 15 is adapted for use in all cartridges of .30 caliber or smaller 
which use shells of large powder capacity, and does its best work with 
pointed bullets. Its burning pressure is 50,000 to 55,000 pounds, 
though it will stand more than this without becoming erratic. Its 
chief advantage is that in a number of cartridges it will develop 100 to 
300 feet more velocity than can be obtained with the regular burning 
powders. In relation to other powders No. 15 occupies a position 
which in a sense is midway between Du Pont No. 13 and Du Pont No. 
16, though both these latter are slightly improved in their composition. 
It practically takes the place of both Du Pont No. 10 and Du Pont No. 
20 of the regular burning types. In all cartridges and rifles to which 
its nature is suited it gives the usual nitrocellulose accuracy. No. 
15 cannot be measured accurately and charges must be weighed. Its 
disadvantages are that the weight of charge, and hence expense, is a 
little more than with some older powders, that it ignites a little harder, 
it gives a big muzzle flash at night, and it can be used only in a limited 
number of cartridges. 

The recoil it produces is quite different from that given by regular 
burning powders. It does not seem to be less in amount, but is exerted 
in a different direction. It also seems to give a different flip to the bar- 
rel, and sight elevations with it will be found considerably below those 
obtained with regular burning powders in equivalent loads. Only 
metal-cased bullets can be used with No. 15, and only full charges of 
powder. It burns too slow for use in reduced loads. 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 321 

DU PONT IMPROVED MILITARY RIFLE POWDER NO. l8 

When Du Pont No. 15 powder had demonstrated the possibilities of 
a progressive burning smokeless powder by giving more than 2900 feet 
velocity in the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge, a call immediately 
arose for a similar powder that would burn correctly in cartridges of 
more limited powder capacity. No. 15 burns so slowly that it can be 
used only where the charge is big, especially in the smaller bores. This 
second progressive burning nitrocellulose powder was therefore de- 
veloped in 191 5, and first marketed during the latter months of that 
year. The grains are .045 inch long and .03 inch in diameter (a very 
short cut), and of course are of the usual tubular shape. In the size of 
grain No. 18 greatly resembles the regular burning No. 21 powder, and 
it is intended to replace that excellent one in many cartridges. In de- 
signing No. 18 the makers had in mind particularly the requirements of 
such cartridges as the .25-35 an( l -S ^ - It is in these and similar 
cartridges, therefore, where the best results from its use may be ex- 
pected. It burns best at pressures from 33,000 to 38,000 pounds. 

After numerous tests of No. 18 had been made it proved to have a 
great deal more flexibility than either No. 21 or No. 15. At pressures 
of 45,000 and even 50,000 pounds it does not become erratic, while at 
pressures as low as 20,000 pounds it still burns in a fairly satisfactory 
manner. This enlarges the field of its usefulness so as to take in the 
.30-40 cartridge, and it can even be used in the .30-caliber, Model 1906 
cartridge. It is also suitable for reduced loads, and can be used 
with gas-check bullets. 

The velocities developed with No. 18 are 100 to 350 feet higher than 
standard in a big range of medium hunting cartridges. As related to 
other powders, it is the quickest burning progressive powder that we 
have. The special advantages of No. 18 are the quick burning (good 
in small shells and short barrels), the accuracy that it gives, the low 
temperature at which it burns, and consequent absence of erosive 
action in the bore, the wide range of cartridges in which it may be used, 
possibility of using it in reduced loads,, and the accuracy possible in 
measured charges. Weighing is useful as a check, but the Ideal meas- 
ure will throw charges very close to what is required, especially for 
the lighter loads. 

The limitations of No. 18 are that care must be exercised when the 
charges used are close to the maximum. On account of its quick burn- 
ing, abuse of it by overloading may cause very high pressures, which, 



322 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

though regular, may still be dangerous in some of the older hunting 
rifles. Attempts should not be made to use it steadily in place of the 
slower burning progressives in cartridges of the .30-40 class and 
larger. Larger proportionate charges of No. 18 may be used in shells 
of slight or long taper, and in larger bores than in cartridges where 
the opposite pertains. 

DU PONT IMPROVED MILITARY RIFLE POWDER NO. l6 

The history of all other progressive powders is involved in the mak- 
ing of this one, and in it is comprised all progress along this line that 
so far has been taught the makers. It is the latest, most modern 
progressive rifle powder. Perhaps from its performances we may 
get some idea of what may be expected of the rifle powders of the 
future. 

No. 16 in type is a progressive burning nitrocellulose powder with 
almost the same size grains as No. 15, though slightly less in diameter. 
It was first put on the market early in 1917, though a preliminary lot 
was distributed among expert riflemen during 1916. This time the 
manufacturers worked to perfect a progressive powder suited to a 
wide range of cartridges and conditions, rather than to one particular 
cartridge or type of cartridge. As a result No. 16 is the most flexible 
dense powder, if not the most flexible of all modern powders, and 
more nearly approaches the universal powder than any made since 
black powder days. 

Its best burning pressure lies between 30,000 and 50,000 pounds, 
though within these limits no one seems to have established a point 
at which it does better than at others. In consequence of these capaci- 
ties No. 16 is suited to a wide range of cartridges and rifles, from 
.22 Savage high power, through the various .30 calibers, to the .405 
Winchester. It has also been officially adopted as the powder for 
small arms by the British war office. Many of the cartridges in which 
it does good work, on account of being straight shells or for other rea- 
sons, never before have been able to use a dense powder with more 
than fair satisfaction. 

The velocities that can be developed in all these cartridges with No. 
16 are the highest ever known. For instance 3250 feet can be ob- 
tained in the .250-3000 Savage cartridge, and 3000 feet in the Spring- 
field with 150-grain bullet. Standard velocities can be secured, if 
desired, by reducing the charge without any trouble resulting. All 
of these loads develop accuracy equal to any on record. No. 16 in 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 323 

relation to other powders of its type, stands between the quick burning 
No. 18, and the slow burning No. 13. In respect to No. 15 it is 
quicker. 

Its advantages, summed up, are that it is extremely accurate, burns 
at very low temperature, ignites easily, and is very widely useful. It 
can be used to speed up and transform many otherwise inefficient car- 
tridges. A feature not to be overlooked is that its residue seems to 
clean out of barrels easier than that of any other smokeless powder. 
This feature is so marked that every one using the powder has noted 
it. Lack of erosive properties, with this lack of corrosive nature of 
the residue, permit barrels to be fired more than 20,000 rounds with 
No. 16 without their accuracy having deteriorated enough to be seri- 
ous. In fact this powder causes only about 60 per cent, of the erosion 
caused by even as cool burning a powder as No. 20. No. 16 measures 




Fig. 79 
Krag rifle remodelled into a sporting arm by Fred Adolph 

fairly well. In charges intended to give standard velocities the Ideal 
powder measure can be relied upon to throw them with sufficient exact- 
ness and uniformity for ordinary work if the setting of the measure is 
checked by the scales. When charges giving extreme velocity are used 
each charge should be weighed. 

DU PONT IMPROVED MILITARY RIFLE POWDER NO. I3 

Although No. 13 is not generally on the market at the time this is 
being written, yet I want to include a description because no other 
powder can be used to secure equal results in the .256 Newton car- 
tridge, and in some similar cartridges. This powder was developed 
during 1917, and properly can be said to be an outgrowth of No. 16 
powder. It has about the same composition, and is intended to take 
up where that powder leaves off. 

No. 13 is a dense, nitrocellulose, progressive burning powder, with 
tubular grains about .08 inch long and .04 inch in diameter. The 
grains vary much in measurement, owing to their drying crooked, and 



324 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

to edges turned and flared. In appearance No. 13 greatly resembles 
No. 15. 

The history of No. 13 is a story of numerous experiments with No. 
10, and No. 15 in the Newton series of cartridges, and incidentally in 
the Ross .280. The peculiar conditions to be met included a required 
ultra high velocity in each case, a very large charge of powder in a 
big shell with sharply restricted neck and small bore. The powder 
needed should be of the progressive burning type, and should burn 
slower than No. 16. The burning of No. 13, designed with these con- 
ditions in view, is normal between 50,000 and 55,000 pounds. It will 
burn satisfactorily at higher pressure, but not at much lower. With 
normal pressures velocities of 2975 feet per second are obtained 
in the .256 Newton rifle with 24-inch barrel, upwards of 3300 feet 
in the .280 Ross with 28-inch barrel, and 3225 feet in the .30 Newton 
with .30-inch barrel. To bring out more clearly the capacities and 
limitations of No. 13, certain peculiarities of these results should be 
noted. The .256 Newton has a smaller powder capacity than the 
other two cartridges named, hence must use a smaller charge. In- 
creasing the barrel length of this rifle to 30 inches brings no appreciable 
increase in velocity, proving that the entire charge burns in the 24-inch 
barrel. In the .280 Ross a 24-inch barrel with maximum charge of 
No. 13 that can be put in this big shell, gives only about 2990 feet, 
while in a 28-inch barrel the same charge gives 3300 feet velocity. 
This shows that the larger charge is required for best burning under 
.280 conditions, and that longer barrels than 24 inches are required to 
realize the full potential force. 

No. 13 is one of the powder series which includes Nos. 15, 18, and 
16, but is more closely related to the latter powder than the others. 
It is the slowest burning of the four. It differs from No. 16, however, 
in being restricted in usefulness to the few cartridges of large powder 
capacity such as those above described. The grains are a little too 
coarse for uniformity in measuring. This, in connection with the 
fact that all the charges are maximum ones, makes the weighing of 
each charge imperative. No. 13 should not be used in an effort to 
secure lower than standard velocities, since the charge required would 
be considerably less than the maximum, and the pressure far lower, 
hence poor burning would surely result with consequent falling off in 
accuracy and other troubles. 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 325 

HERCULES W. A. .30-CALIBER POWDER 

What 1909 military powder did in assisting the development of the 
Springfield rifle between 1906 and 1909, this .30-caliber powder did in 
even greater degree for the Krag rifle between 1900 and 1904. The 
fact that it is obsolete now should not detract from the credit due it 
for its good work in past days. 

W. A. is a dense, 30 per cent., nitroglycerine powder with grains 
about .08 inch in diameter by .04 to .05 inch long. They are perforated, 
forming thick washers in shape, are graphited, and are gray-black 
in color. 

The .30-40 Krag cartridge when it first came out was loaded with 
a special black powder experimentally, but the excessive fouling proved 
this powder impracticable. Then it was loaded with various foreign 
cordite powders, and finally with Peyton smokeless, but all these pow- 
ders were not perforated, nor were they graphited. Their burning 
temperature was excessively high, their pressures were erratic and un- 
controllable, and they gave generally inaccurate results. 

The W. A. powder, so named from the two chemists who developed 
it, Mr. Whistler and Mr. Aspinwall, was graphited and perforated, and 
immediately gave results not before approached in the .30-40 car- 
tridge for which it was designed. It at once replaced the older pow- 
ders. During the first two years of its use it was badly handicapped by 
inferior bullets, and not until 1903 when proper bullets of at least 
.308 inch in diameter were made for the .30-40 Krag cartridge did this 
powder begin to show its real possibilities. From then on until 1907 
it won all the international rifle matches, and it remained the best dense 
smokeless powder until the introduction of stable nitrocellulose pow- 
der during the period between 1906 and 1909. 

The correct burning pressure of W. A. is 34,000 to 39,000 pounds to 
the square inch. Below these pressures it burns incompletely and 
erratically ; above them it reacts strongly to the pressures and increases 
excessively in temperature of burning. At its normal pressures it de- 
velops muzzle velocities of about 2000 feet in the .30-40 Krag car- 
tridge with the standard 220-grain bullet. It is not suitable for use 
with any of the lighter bullets in this cartridge, nor for others without 
metal jackets or with less bearing surface, nor with charges that vary 
much from the Krag standard. It can be used, however, in several 
other cartridges similar to the Krag, such as the .33 W. C. F., and 
.35 W. C. F. Model 1895, with long, heavy bullets, and with shells of 
about the same powder capacity. 



326 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



W. A. in series is one of four nitroglycerine powders that have been 
widely used, the other three being Lightning, Sharpshooter, and HiVel. 
Of these it is quicker burning than HiVel, but slower than the other 
two. Its place in the development of modern rifle powders is that of 
the pioneer, and its purposes today are better served in the .30-40 as 
well as other cartridges by the more modern nitrocellulose powders. 

The advantage of W. A. was that it was accurate in long barrels 
with heavy bullets. A low weight of charge was required. Viewed 





Fig. 80 
Double barrelled elephant rifle made by Fred Adolph 

from the present day angle, W. A. is inflexible (can be used in a few 
cartridges and with no variation in loading), it burns hot and erodes 
the barrel seriously, develops only a low velocity, and is not capable 
of giving the accuracy of the more modern powders. Krag rifles 
fired with nothing but W. A. begin to show inaccuracies that can be 
noticed by an expert rifleman after about 1000 rounds have been fired 
from them, and the accuracy is seriously impaired after about 1700 
rounds. 

HERCULES LIGHTNING POWDER 

This is a dense powder of wide usefulness, and with but one bad 
fault — its hot burning and erosive effect on the barrels. It is of the 
nitroglycerine type, containing 30 per cent, of that explosive, and is 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 327 

made in two grain sizes called No. 1 and No. 2. As the grains come 
from the dies they are cut .1 inch in diameter by .015 inch long for No. 
2, and .08 inch in diameter by .05 inch long for No. 1. In drying 
these grains contract a little, and warp much, so that the grains of the 
powder on the market vary greatly. These grains are of the perforated 
tube variety but are cut so short that they resemble washers rather 
than tubes. 

The correct burning pressure for Lightning is 32,000 to 37,000 pounds 
per square inch. It was designed about 1903 in answer to a demand 
for a dense smokeless powder that would make possible high-power, 
hunting cartridges somewhat smaller than the .30-40 Krag, such as 
the .30-30, .303 Savage, and .25-35. In this type of cartridges it de- 
veloped velocities about 2000 feet per second. Later on experiments 
showed that it was excellent for cartridges of the .30-40, 7 mm. and 
8 mm. class when they were loaded with lighter bullets. Still later 
Lightning proved extremely useful for mid-range loads in all high 
power cartridges, when used with either metal-jacketed bullets, or alloy 
bullets with copper gas-checks on the base to protect the base of the 
bullet from being fused by the hot powder gases. 

The advantages of Lightning are clean burning, great accuracy, 
more than fair stability except under extremes of heat and cold, light 
weight of charges required, and good measuring quality. The Ideal 
measure cuts a few grains, but throws charges with pretty satisfactory 
exactness. It develops standard velocities in the .30-30 and similar 
cartridges with slightly lower pressure than the equivalent charge of 
nitrocellulose powder. 

The disadvantages are, first, the hot, eroding gases generated. Any 
rifle using this powder for a thousand shots is bound to show typical 
erosion or washing away of the lands just in front of the chamber. 
Lightning reacts quickly to slight overloading, as well as to heat. Thus 
if forced to burn behind a cartridge that normally would require a pres- 
sure of say, 40,000 to 50,000 pounds, the nature of the powder is such 
that the pressures might run up to 60,000 to 70,000 pounds, or even 
more, which would be dangerous. When ammunition is loaded with 
Lightning for use in the tropics, a few grains should always be de- 
ducted from the regular charge. Great care should be exercised by 
any one loading Lightning to check the powder measure with scales 
whenever the charges used pass the mid-range amount, or when heavier 
or harder bullets than the standard are used. 

In series, Lightning classes with Sharpshooter, the quicker burning 



328 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

nitroglycerine powder, and with W. A. and HiVel, both slower burners. 
In development it belongs strictly to the nitroglycerine period, and any 
results that it gives are duplicated or excelled by the proper nitrocellu- 
lose powder of more modern introduction. Today there is little more 
justification for loading .22 Savage High-Power, .30-30, .303 Savage, 
.2,2 Special, and other such cartridges with Lightning, than there is 
in loading the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge with HiVel, when No. 
20 and the newer powders are available. Lightning is far better suited 
for mid-range charges, where pressure is minimum, than for full power 
charges. 

HERCULES SHARPSHOOTER POWDER 

This powder was introduced to give modern smokeless powder re- 
sults in a diversified group of cartridges in which W. A. and Light- 
ning would not burn properly. In some of them it achieved excellent 
velocities; in others little improvement over the black powder stand- 
ards was obtained. 

Sharpshooter is a dense, nitroglycerine type of powder, with two 
sizes of grain, measuring about .08 inch in diameter by .01 and .015 
inch thick, respectively. It will be noticed that this is a very fine 
powder which burns at great speed. It contains 40 per cent, of nitro- 
glycerine, which, together with the quick burning, makes it the most 
virulent eroding powder manufactured. The grains are graphited 
and perforated, hence look like black washers. The date of introduc- 
tion w r as about 1903. The manufacturers probably had the conditions 
of the 45-70 cartridge as much in mind as those of any other when 
they formulated Sharpshooter, but it was intended for use in all car- 
tridges which gave little bullet or neck resistance. Quick burning was 
one essential, ease of complete ignition another. In consequence Sharp- 
shooter burns well, and gives accurate results in .45-70, .38-55, .32-40, 
.38-40 and many other such cartridges. The burning pressure re- 
quired is 26,000 to 31,000 pounds. It will not burn well at much be- 
low this pressure, and above it it becomes very erratic and dangerous. 
It has been much recommended for reduced loads in high power rifles, 
even in .22 Savage High Power, and .250-3000 Savage. In such load- 
ing it gives accurate results, but it is so destructive that its advantages 
are entirely outweighed. It is the powder considered best for auto- 
matic rifles, particularly those of the blow-back type of action. Dur- 
ing recent years several of the cartridge loading cartridges have used 
it extensively in the so called " High Velocity, Low Pressure " car- 



4^ 



«|^ 



* % 1 

A ^' • , fif 



4 l^* 1 




Fig. 7SA 
Grains of modern rifle powders, greatly enlarged 

1. Dn Pont Military Rifle Powder No. 21 

2. Dn Pont No. I Rifle Smokeless 

3. Dn Pont Sporting Rifle Powder No. 8o 

32Q 



330 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

tridges for rifles of the black-powcler class, and for the real high- 
velocity ammunition of the same size cartridges. It is not the proper 
powder for the latter. 

The velocities developed with the usual Sharpshooter loading are 
the standard for black powder. The High Velocity loading gives 1600 
to 1970 feet at the muzzle, varying with different cartridges and bul- 
lets. In general the powder is not suitable for developing more than 
standard black-powder velocities, owing to excessive reaction to slight 
increase in pressure, and to excessively hot burning. 

In series Sharpshooter classes with W. A., Lightning, and HiVel, 
and is the quickest burning of the four. In development it is years 
behind any nitrocellulose powder. If its manufacture were to cease 
its place could be filled by other existing powders without any loss 
whatever except for the gap between the quick burning No. 80, and 
the slower burning No. 18. At this point there is room for another 
nitrocellulose powder. 

The advantages of Sharpshooter are so many that one cannot help 
wishing that it did not have such serious faults. It is highly con- 
centrated and takes a low weight of charge. It is impervious to 
moisture from the air. It is extremely accurate. It burns well in 
straight shells, and develops the maximum effect from the minimum 
of shell space. In short, when used without regard to erosion it is a 
valuable powder. _ This erosion, however, is most serious in small bores 
and least serious in large bores. It shows very little erosion in the 
45-70 rifle. In very small rifles, like the .25-20, it causes other trou- 
bles probably from an intensely acid residue which occurs in these 
small bores where the powder charge does not so fully dilute the 
extremely acid product from the combustion of the primer. The 
charges measure out very uniformly in the Ideal powder measure or 
otherwise, but in anything like full loads for any cartridge they should 
be checked by weighing to assure against overloading. Caution is nec- 
essary in attempting to identify Sharpshooter by the appearance of the 
grains alone, as there is very little difference in appearance between it 
and the smaller cut of Lightning, and a charge of the latter which would 
be correct would be a heavy overload for Sharpshooter. 

HERCULES HIVEL POWDER 

This is also known as Du Pont Military Rifle Powder No. 19, and 
as " 1908 Military." It was formerly made by the Du Pont Com- 
pany, but they have now discontinued its manufacture, and the Her- 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 331 

cules Powder Company are the only firm manufacturing it at the pres- 
ent time. It is a special powder formulated for the .30-caliber, Model 
1903, and .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridges, in which it failed to give 
complete satisfaction because of its erosive qualities. 

HiVel is a dense nitroglycerine powder, with 15 per cent, of that ex- 
plosive. The grains measure about .09-inch in diameter by about .05 
inch long, and are perforated and graphited. It is the most recent 
addition to the series comprising Lightning, Sharpshooter, and W. 
A., and the slowest burning of the four. It never was widely used, 
although a few military target riflemen preferred it because of its 
extreme accuracy in the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge, particularly 
with the 180-grain bullet. 

HiVel was developed in 1908 under the name of " 1908 Military 
Powder," to fill a demand for a slower burning powder than W. A. 
for use in the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge. In that year the 
efforts of the Du Pont Company to produce a suitable powder for 
this new cartridge were conducted along both nitroglycerine and nitro- 
cellulose lines at the same time, with the result that the nitroglycerine 
1908 powder was first produced, to be quickly followed and entirely 
displaced by the 1909 Military of nitrocellulose type, the name of which 
has since been changed to Du Pont No. 20. 

HiVel burns best at a pressure of 42,000 to 47,000 pounds. It de- 
velops standard velocities in a few cartridges having fairly large pow- 
der capacity, such as the .30 Model 1903, .30 Model 1906, .35 Win- 
chester Model 1895, .^t, Winchester, and a few others, but is not 
suitable for getting increased velocities owing to the extreme erosion de- 
veloped. Its accuracy is splendid, although no better than the proper 
loads of nitrocellulose powders. Long-range riflemen used to use it 
with great success by changing the barrels of their rifles after every 
500 rounds or so. Wlien loaded to give standard velocities it develops 
from 1000 to 1500 pounds less pressure than the corresponding regular 
burning nitrocellulose powders. It ignites easily and uniformly, and 
the residue is easily cleaned from the bore. 

The charges should always be weighed. It will not measure uni- 
formly in the Ideal powder measure or otherwise. I should like to cau- 
tion any rifleman against attempting to use this powder in any of the 
ultra high-velocity cartridges such as the Newton series, and the .280 
Ross, since any charge that will develop normal velocities in these 
arms, or even burn the powder properly behind their bullets, will im- 
pair the barrels through erosion in a very few rounds. 



332 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



DU PONT NO. I RIFLE SMOKELESS POWDER 

This was the first bulk smokeless rifle powder produced in America, 
and is still widely used. It has numerous good qualities, and no 
serious faults. Its shortcomings are those of lack of capacity. No. 
i is a true bulk-for-bulk nitrocellulose powder with fibrous, irregular 




Du Pont No. I Rifle Smokeless. Four hundred times actual size 

grains screened through a 16-to-the-inch mesh, and caught on a 26-to- 
the-inch mesh, which makes it a rather coarse granulation. The color 
is slightly smoky or dirty white. It was developed about 1898 and was 
designed for replacing black powder in the then long list of black- 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 333 

powder cartridges ranging from .25 caliber up to .50 caliber. It was 
successful in these cartridges, and during later years to some extent 
also in reduced charges for high-power rifles. The burning pres- 
sure is 20,000 to 25,000 pounds. The velocities developed by No. 1 
are those which are standard for black powder. It gives no increase. 
The aim of the designers was to get a clean burning, smokeless powder 
that would occupy the same powder space as the regular black-powder 
charges. Increasing the charge gives slight increase in velocities, but 
brings certain troubles which make the effort not worth while. 

No. 1 was produced before No. 75, which is of a somewhat similar 
composition, and long before No. 80, which, using many of the same 
ingredients, is more condensed, quicker burning, and more moisture 
resisting. 

The one outstanding advantage of No. 1 at the time that it was 
introduced was the smokeless feature. A hunter could fire shot after 
shot from a repeating rifle without the smoke obscuring his game 
as it would do with black powder. It could be used in a great many 
cartridges, gave excellent accuracy, burned at a low temperature, meas- 
ured well, and used a low weight of charge. Against these ad- 
vantages was the necessity for a tighter fitting bullet than with black 
powder, for smokeless powder cleaning, and for special smokeless 
primers. 

A caution necessary in the use of No. I is that charges compressed 
in the shell should be fired within a few days after loading. If left 
longer the soft grains will crumble under the bullet pressure, and in 
this fine condition the powder will burn much faster, and develop 
pressures much higher than normal. The powder in cans and in the 
cartridges after loading, with any sized charges, should be protected 
from moist air, as the grains absorb moisture readily. 

DU PONT SCHUETZEN POWDER 

This is a true " bulk-for-bulk," smokeless rifle powder, in that 
charges for any cartridge occupy the same shell space as charges of 
black powder. It is of a nitrocellulose composition, with large grains 
of a light reddish brown color resembling very fine gravel. In the 
manufacture the grains are screened through a 1 5-to-the-inch mesh, and 
caught on a 25-mesh screen. 

Schuetzen was issued to the trade in 1909, and was designed spe- 
cially for fine target shooting in Schuetzen rifles of .32-40 and .38-55 
caliber. It burns at a pressure of 22,000 to 26,000 pounds to the square 



334 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

inch, and develops approximately the same velocities as black powder. 
No other powder is more accurate than this when it is loaded under 
the conditions intended, and especially when the bullet is seated in the 
rifling' ahead of the shell, or in the breech-muzzle loading rifles. 
Schuetzen burns coolly, and its residue is easily cleaned from the bore, 
though smokeless powder methods are required. It measures with 
the greatest accuracy so that there is little advantage in weighing the 
charges. Its use is limited to the two cartridges named, and to a few 
others with straight shells. I have found it excellent in the .25-20 
single-shot cartridge with metal- jacketed bullet. It should be used only 
in full charges as it burns too slowly for reduced loads. It is also 
too much subject to moisture absorption, "and to effects from dirt in 
the shells, for satisfactory use in loaded cartridges that are to be kept 
some time before firing. For almost all purposes, except Schuetzen 
shooting on the range, No. 80 is a better powder. 

DU PONT GALLERY RIFLE POWDER NO. 75 

This powder was formerly known as " Marksman." In many re- 
spects it has been, and still is, one of the most important and valuable 
of our modern rifle powders. It never has brought about entire re- 
designing of rifles, as No. 20 has done, but it has served exceedingly 
well to make a great many otherwise highly specialized rifles more 
widely useful. 

No. 75 is a nitrocellulose powder classed as "bulk," though it is 
considerably more concentrated than the true " bulk-for-bulk," smoke- 
less powders. The grains are fibrous, irregular in shape and size, 
with all the corners rounded off to make them flow more freely and 
easily in powder measures. They are of a size that goes through the 
26-to-the-inch mesh screen, but not through the 60 mesh, which makes 
a fine grained powder. The color is steel gray. This powder was 
designed about 1904 for the .30-40 Krag rifle in reduced charges. 
The Army and Navy at that time had encountered difficulties in 
accomplishing the desired amount of target practice with full service 
ammunition, and no suitable powder was available that could be used 
with success for loading or reloading these cartridges with an eco- 
nomical charge good for ranges up to or beyond 200 yards. The Laflin 
and Rand Powder Company then designed this powder, making it of 
a nature to ignite and burn properly when loaded in small charges in 
large shells, and to do this without fusing the base of the bullets, 
which were of lead allov. 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 335 

Experiments soon showed that " Marksman," as it was then called, 
worked equally well in a wide range of cartridges, notably the .25-20, 
.25-35, •3 (y ~3°} an d .30 Model 1906, and later on in the .22 Savage 
High Power, .250-3000 Savage, .280 Ross, and even in the Newton 
series of cartridges. In all these cartridges, however, it fills just the 
one purpose, that of giving bullet velocities of from 800 to 1600 feet. 
Naturally it is less useful in the small cartridges than in the larger ones 
because it closely approximates standard results in the small ones. 

The burning pressure is 10,000 to 15,000 pounds. It will burn with 
fair satisfaction in proper rifles at 5000 pounds less than the average 
of these figures, and at several thousand higher. In the .30-40, for 
instance, with a bullet weighing 175 grains, a charge of about 11 
grains will give a velocity of about 1200 feet, which for target pur- 
poses reproduces the .32-40 black-powder cartridge. I have used 15 
grains in the .30-40, and 17 grains in the .30 Model 1906 cartridges, 
both with the 150-grain, pointed, full- jacketed, service bullet, with 
excellent results and the finest accuracy. These loads must develop 
1600 to 1700 feet velocity. 

No. 80 is a somewhat similar powder, though of a different com- 
position, and slightly less concentrated. No. 1 differs still more, and 
is much less concentrated. Of these three it is the quickest burning. 

The advantages of No. 75 are that in proper charges it does not 
fuse alloy or lead bullets, it is very accurate, requires a low weight of 
charge, has no eroding effect on the barrel, cleans out easily, meas- 
ures with great uniformity in the Ideal measure, and ignites well even 
when the charge occupies only a small part of the shell space. The 
disadvantages are that it is susceptible to moisture, and cannot be 
used for full charges to get standard velocities. Riflemen should load 
their reduced charges with No. 75 not very long before using them, 
and should clean their shells. Loaded ammunition left in shells, espe- 
cially if the shells are dirty inside, is liable to deteriorate in such a way 
as to become inaccurate at least. No. 75 should not be used in ex- 
tremely light charges for gallery ammunition, nor in charges of its own 
class where No. 80 is indicated on account of its resistance to moisture. 

DU PONT SPORTING RIFLE POWDER NO. 80 

For a long time after No. 1 was developed no advance was made 
in the bulk class of powders, with the result that certain nitroglycerine 
brands, such as Sharpshooter, came into general use in black-powder 
cartridges. No. 80 is a bulk nitrocellulose which was developed in 1914 



23 6 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

to take this place. The grains are fibrous, irregular in shape, and are 
screened through a 24-to-the-inch mesh, and caught on a 56 mesh, and 
are buff in color. No. 80 was designed for use in all the older class 
of low-power rifles in which black powder could be used, and works 
well with plain lead, gas-check, and metal- jacketed bullets. After it 
had been on the market for some time experiments showed that it gave 
excellent results in revolver and automatic pistol cartridges, and in 
automatic rifle cartridges. It also proved to be very serviceable and 
accurate in reduced charges in high-power cartridges for all sizes from 
.22 Savage High Power up to .30 Newton and .405 Winchester. 

The correct burning pressure is 14,000 to 19,000 pounds, but it will 
burn with fair satisfaction at much lower pressures. At higher pres- 
sures it reacts to some extent, and develops a temporary excess of 
pressure near the head of the shell. The velocities developed are any- 
thing desired within a few hundred feet of the standard for black pow- 
der. Thus it will give lower velocities with reduced loading, standard 
velocities with charges as recommended on the canister, and with 
larger charges, will give the " high velocities " required in the .38-40, 
.44-40, .32-40, and .38-55 cartridges of that designation. It de- 
velops all the velocity that gas check bullets will stand, and can be 
substituted for Sharpshooter with advantage in all medium and small 
sized shells at least. 

No. 80 burns slower than No. 75, and faster than No. I. In point 
of development it is a long way ahead of either of these, and should 
replace them in all loading except that of No. 75 behind plain, lead-alloy 
bullets. The advantages of No. 80 are great accuracy, easily removed 
residue, ease of measuring (there is no necessity of weighing charges), 
ease of ignition, great flexibility (it will work well in almost all car- 
tridges), resistance to moisture absorption and the effects of dirt in 
shells, and cool burning. It ignites readily even when the charge 
used occupies only a small part of the shell space. It can be loaded into 
dirty shells without deteriorating within a short time. Its cool burning 
prevents the fusing of lead bullets, and prevents damage to rifle bar- 
rels. 

Certain disadvantages, however, must be guarded against. While 
it is classed as bulk powder, it cannot be loaded bulk-for-bulk with black 
powder. The correct charge is stated below for each cartridge in so 
many grains, and this bulk can be secured with the Ideal measure or 
otherwise by the use of the equivalent table given in the next chapter. 
In many cases the recommended charges practically fill the shell, and in 



MODERN RIFLE POWDERS 



337 



a few cases must be jarred or tamped to permit the seating of the 
bullet. Compression apparently does no harm, but should be avoided 
if the charge can be gotten in the shell by jarring. 

The following is a list of charges of No. 80, giving standard veloci- 
ties in the cartridges stated : 



Cartridge 



.22-13 
.22-15 
.25-20 
.25-20 
.25-21 
.25-21 
•25-25 
•25-25 
.32-20 
.32-20 
.32-40 
.38-40 

•38-55 
.44-40 
.44-40 
•45-70 
•45-00 

•45-^90 



.32-20 
.38-40 
.44-40 



Winchester S. S 

Stevens 

Repeater , 

Single Shot 
Stevens S. S. . . 
Stevens S. S. 
Stevens S. S. 
Stevens S. S. 
Winchester 
Winchester H 
Winchester . 
Winchester . 
Winchester . 
Winchester . 
Winchester . 
Winchester H 
Winchester . 
Winchester . 



V. 



V. 



Bullet, 
grains 



45 lead 

60 lead 

86 lead 

86 lead 

86 lead 

86 jacketed 

86 jacketed 

86 lead 
100 lead 
100 jacketed 
165 jacketed 
180 jacketed 
255 jacketed 
2CO jacketed 
200 lead 
300 jacketed 
300 jacketed 
300 lead 



FOR USE IN REVOLVERS 

100 lead 
180 lead 
200 lead 



Weight 

of charge, 

grains 



4-3 

6. 

7- 
6.8 

7-5 
8.8 

9- 
8. 
8.6 
12. 

13-2 

14.9 
16.4 
17- 

15-7 

31- 

31.2 

29.7 



7-5 
16.3 
18.2 



When used in large charges, a limit is reached in each cartridge past 
which the head pressure in the chamber becomes too much for the shell, 
expanding and tightening it, though the chamber and barrel pressures 
may be lower than normal for the velocity developed. Riflemen should 
load up to this limit, but not beyond it. For instance, in the .45-70 
cartridge with the 330-grain bullet of nearly pure lead, a charge of 28 
grains will upset the head of the shell, while one of 26 grains does not. 



CHAPTER XIII 

RELOADING AMMUNITION 

\X 7HEN a center-fire cartridge is fired in a rifle there remains the 
' * case or shell, almost as good as new, and worth practically half 
the cost of the cartridge ; that is, to say from one to three cents. 
Primers, powder, and bullets can be purchased, and this shell can be 
reloaded many times with a resultant great reduction in one's ammuni- 
tion bill. From an economical standpoint it of course depends upon 
how one wishes to spend one's spare time, and how much one's time 
is worth. 

In a great many cases the rifleman will find that reloaded ammuni- 
tion is more satisfactory than the factory product, because it is possible 
for him to vary it slightly to suit exactly the peculiarities of his own 
rifle, and also because he can make up special loads that are not handled 
by the factories. The factory must manufacture a certain cartridge so 
that it will fit every rifle of that caliber, and this cartridge must be 
perfectly safe in all these rifles, despite rusted barrels and worn actions. 
The rifleman can use the shells which have been fired in his own rifle 
and fully expanded to fit the chamber perfectly, this in itself contribut- 
ing to better accuracy. He can use a bullet which just fits to the 
bottom of the grooves in his particular barrel, and if he so desires, and 
his rifle is in A I condition he can load the cartridge a little heavier 
than the factory loads and still have a plentiful margin of safety, 
although in this latter respect he must have a knowledge of powders 
and pressures, and know exactly what he is doing. 

An acquaintance with thousands of riflemen throughout our country 
enables me to assert that very few of them load their own ammuni- 
tion. Considering the advantages which accrue from the proper re- 
loading of ammunition, the several reasons for this should be consid- 
ered. First, American factory ammunition loaded by any of our four 
largest ammunition factories, Winchester, U. M. C, United States, 
and Peters, is so good that it really cannot be adversely criticised. 
Considering that the factory must cater to every rifle, and every rifle- 
man, it is impossible for them to do better. Factory ammunition in an 
accurate, well-designed rifle will shoot better than the rifleman can hold 

338 



RELOADING AMMUNITION 339 

nine times out of ten. Second, the hunter and sportsman fires com- 
paratively few shots, and his yearly ammunition bill is not a serious 
item. Third, the military rifle shot fires probably ten times as much 
ammunition yearly as any other class of shooters, but his ammunition 
is usually largely provided by the Government. Fourth, a great num- 
ber of riflemen have tried reloading and given it up as unsatisfactory, 
principally, I think, because they have failed to obtain and use properly 
all the tools necessary, and because they have adopted needlessly com- 
plicated methods. For example, muzzle resizing chambers, shell-ex- 
panding chambers, and powder measures are always sold by the manu- 
facturers of reloading tools as " extras." In fact some manufacturers 
do not make them at all. As a matter of fact they should not be 
advertised as extras, and a set of tools should never be sold without 
them because they are an absolutely essential part of the equipment if 
satisfactory reloading is to be accomplished. Similiarly, if bullets are 
to be moulded, a mould alone will not suffice ; a dipper, and a lubricating 
and sizing machine are essential. Where one tries to economize, or 
through lack of knowledge buys less than a complete outfit, he is 
doomed to failure. 

It is to the rifle crank that reloading will especially appeal. He will 
find that he will be able to produce more accurate target ammunition, 
more powerful hunting ammunition, and find reduced loads for his 
high-power rifles, none of which he can purchase ready loaded from 
the factories. His yearly ammunition bill will be just about cut in 
half. Moreover, he will learn lessons in ballistics, and acquire an 
intimate knowledge of his weapon which can hardly be attained if he 
confines himself to factory ammunition. Reloading ammunition cer- 
tainly pays in every way, and it is therefore intended to give herein 
detail methods by which absolutely satisfactory results can be at- 
tained. 

We will describe first the simplest case of reloading, that is where one 
takes shells which have been fired in his rifle and reloads them with 
smokeless powder and a jacketed bullet, the bullet being purchased 
ready made. We will say that we have on hand 100 empty shells which 
have been fired in our rifle, and we wish to reload them. Let us also 
say that our rifle is a United States magazine rifle, Model of 1903, using 
the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge, and that we wish to reload the 
shells with a load particularly suited to big game shooting. First, we 
must have certain tools and materials as an initial outlay. One will 
need the following tools : 



34o THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

i Ideal No. 10 special reloading tool with double adjustable chamber for the 

.30-caliber model 1906 cartridge. 
1 muzzle resizer for above tool to resize the necks of the shells so that they are 

slightly below .308-inch diameter inside. 
1 shell expander chamber for above tool to expand the inside of the neck of the 

shell to just .308 inch. 
I Ideal universal powder measure No. 5, with drop tube for .30 caliber up. 

He will also require the following materials : 

Primers, either U. M. C. No. 9, United States Cartridge Co. No. 8, or the 
United States Government standard service rifle primer. Best purchased in lots 
of 1000. 

Several cans, holding one pound each, of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 15. 

One hundred or more 180-grain, 30-caliber umbrella, metal-cased, pointed 
bullets manufactured by the Remington Arms-U. M. C. Co. 

We are now ready to proceed as follows : First we will assume 
that the fired shells have been well taken care of, that they have not 
been allowed to get wet or dirty, that they have not been injured or 
mashed out of shape, and that they are not so old that they have 
become corroded inside. We must now decap, or remove the old fired 
primers from these shells. Screw the double adjustable chamber into 
the handle of the reloading tool, and insert in the chamber the primer 
extracting plug which comes with the tool. Screw up, or unscrew, the 
chamber in the tool until the needle in the point of the plug comes only 
about %o inch above the surface of the tool ; that is, the surface inside 
the jaws of the tool. Now remove the plug from the tool, and insert 
it point first in a shell, taking care that the needle enters the flash hole 
at the base of the shell inside. One can feel it enter here, and soon 
acquires dexterity in getting it in the hole instantly each time. It is 
of course essential that it enter the hole, because if it does not it will 
not eject the old primer, and if one closes the tool with the needle not in 
the flash hole the needle will probably be broken or bent. Now hold- 
ing the plug in the shell, insert both in the chamber of the tool and 
close the handle and press gently. No effort is required. The old 
primer will be forced out of the shell. Extract the primers from all 
the shells, then rub the plug off with an oily cloth, and put it away. 

The shells when fired in the rifle have been so expanded at the neck 
that they will not hold the bullet's friction tight as is necessary. Con- 
sequently they must be resized at the neck. Now all brass rifle shells 
are drawn in manufacture, not turned on a lathe. As a consequence 
they are not of equal thickness, nor is one particular shell of equal 
thickness on all sides. It follows that if we simply decrease their di- 
ameter at the neck by forcing each into a die we will get uniform 
diameter outside, but not inside, where we desire it in order to have 
each bullet securely and uniformly held in the shell. It is therefore 



RELOADING AMMUNITION 



34i 




Shell Expander Chambet 




For Ideal Reloading Tools 



_ Fig. 81 
Ideal tools required for efficient reloading 

necessary first to force the neck of each shell into the muzzle resizer 
so as to decrease its diameter inside below that required, and then 
expand each shell inside by forcing it into the shell expander chamber 
so that each shall have a uniform diameter inside the neck. The bullet 
which we are using is .30825 inch in diameter, and if we enlarge the 
resized shell to .308 inch inside the neck we will have just the correct 
size to hold the bullet friction tight' in the shell. As a dry shell is 
liable to stick in the muzzle resizer, we first go over all our shells and 
wipe them off with a slightly oily rag. Do not use too much oil, just 
enough to make the shell look shiny without appearing oily. Next, 
remove the double adjustable chamber from the reloading tool and 
insert in its place the muzzle resizer. Screw the muzzle resizer up 
gradually, trying a shell in it until you find that the shell is resized 
just up to the shoulder at the base of the neck but no further. No 
particular effort should be required to close the handles of the tool, just 
a firm pressure, but a little tug will usually be found necessary to 
open the handles. This resizes the necks of the shells so that they are 
slightly under .308 inch inside. Next, remove the muzzle resizer and 
insert the shell-expander chamber in its place. Insert a shell and close 
the handle, so adjusting the plug inside the chamber that when the tool 
is closed the plug passes through, or almost through, the neck of the 
shell into the enlarged portion of the shell inside. Then run all the 
shells through this chamber, expanding them to an accurate .308 inch 
inside. During this process it may be necessary to unscrew the ex- 
pander plug entirely out of the chamber occasionally, and wipe it off 
with the oily rag to prevent the shells sticking unduly. 



342 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



Next we have to insert new primers in the shells. Take the top of 
a cardboard box and empty about ioo primers into it, as they are much 
easier picked up in such a container than in the original box. Insert 
a shell in the priming hole in the reloading tool, which is the hole just 
alongside the one which the various chambers screw into. Take a 
primer in the fingers and lay it on top of the primer pocket of the 
shell. Gently close the tool so that the primer inserting plug rests on 
the primer. Easily, and without undue force, complete the closing of 
the tool until the primer is forced to the bottom of the primer pocket. 
Take particular pains that it is forced clear to the bottom of the pocket, 
as, if it is not, a missfire may result with that particular cartridge. No 
particular effort is required to insert and seat the primer, one will 
acquire considerable skill at it in a minute or two. Treat all the shells 
in this manner. 

Now we come to the operation of loading the powder into the shells. 
First of all, if you are smoking, quit it. Do not have any fire around. 
Take a time when you will not be disturbed by other people, and keep 
your wits about you. When you once get started the principal things 
you must look out for are getting two charges of powder in one shell, 
or overlooking a shell and not getting any powder in it, and also seeing 
that no grains of powder are spilled, but that the entire charge gets 
in the shell. 

First, you must adjust your powder measure 
to throw the charge desired. The powder 
measure is graduated for grains of black 
powder, not smokeless. Every smokeless 
powder has its own particular bulk in relation 
to its weight. When we speak of grains of 
smokeless powder we always mean grains by 
weight. The table given herewith shows how 
the powder measure should be set to throw a 
certain weight of all makes of smokeless pow- 
der. The powder measure should be very 
carefully set according to the table, and in the 
manner set forth in the directions which ac- 
company the measure. In this case we will say 
that we wish to load in our .30-caliber, Model 
1906 shell 51.5 grains by weight of Du Pont military rifle powder No. 
15, which will give to the 180-grain bullet a velocity of 2651 feet per 
second measured at a range of 78 feet, which approximates a muzzle 




Fig. 82 
Ideal universal powder 
measure No. 5 



RELOADING AMMUNITION 



343 



velocity of 2700 feet per second. The breech pressure will be about 
56,000 pounds to the square inch. Referring to the table we will see 
that in order that the powder measure shall throw 51.5 grains of 
Du Pont No. 15 powder it must be set at 58 grains, black-powder 
measure. After you have set the measure in this manner go all over 
the calculation from start to finish again, checking it up. You cannot 

BE TOO CAREFUL IN THIS, A GRAIN OR TWO OVER WOULD GIVE YOU 
DANGEROUS PRESSURES. 

It is easiest to work with the powder measure clamped to a stand- 
ard or small shelf so that the end of the tube shall come four or five 
inches above the table or bench. The shells should be arranged on the 
bench in regular order, ten in a row to the left of the end of the tube, 
muzzle up. Now open a can of powder, and fill the reservoir of the 
measure almost to the top. Thereafter fill it up every few minutes so 
as to always keep it over half full. Take a shell with the left hand, 
place the muzzle under and against the opening of the loading tube, 



COMPARATIVE TABLE OF WEIGHT AND BULK OF " DUPONT IMPROVED 

MILITARY RIFLE POWDER NO. 16 " 

WITH BLACK POWDER 

This table does not compare the strength of Du Pont improved military rifle 
powder No. 16 with black powder, but is given here to enable shooters using 
the Ideal universal powder measure to have handy a table for setting same 
when loading this powder. By setting the measure slide at the proper figure in 
the left-hand column, the desired charge of improved military rifle powder No. 
16, shown in the right hand column, will be thrown in actual grains weight. 



Set 


Weight 




Set 


Weight 


measure 


charge 




measure 


charge 


at 


desired 




at 


desired 


20 


17 




36 


30.4 


22 


18.6 




38 


32.2 


24 


20.6 


" DE " 


40 


33-9 


26 


22.3 


Slides 


42 


35-5 


28 


23.8 




44 


37-3 


30 


25-3 




46 


39-2 


32 


27.0 




48 


40.8 


34 


28.7 




5o 


42.7 


30 


28.6 




60 


54-1 


35 


32.7 




65 


59 


40 


37-9 


"DEF" 


70 


64 


45 


41-3 


Slides 


75 


68.6 


50 


46 




80 


73-2 


55 


50 









Note: Du Pont improved military rifle powder No. 13 will not measure ac- 
curately through powder measures. This powder should always be weighed. 

and turn down the handle, thus emptying the charge from the measure 
into the shell. Holding the shell there, give the little knocker on the 
front of the measure one little flick upward so that it strikes the upper 



344 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



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TAe number in front of the dif- 
ferent powders designates the col- 
umn in the table for that powder. 
Names of Powders 

j Graduations on measures and for 
black powder only. 

2 No. i Rifle (Du Pont). 
2 Schuetzen (Du Pont). 

2 E. C. (Hercules). 

3 Du Pont Gallery Rifle No. 75- 

4 Unique (Hercules). 

5 Sharpshooter (Hercules). 

6 Lightning (Hercules). 

7 W. A. 30 cal. (Hercules). 

7 King's Semi-Smokeless. 

8 Du Pont Military Rifle No. 20. 

9 Ballistite (Du Pont). 

10 Empire (Du Pont). 

10 Schultze (Du Pont.) 

10 Smokeless Shotgun (Du Pont). 

10 Mullerite. 

10 Dead Shot. 

11 Infallible (Hercules). 

12 Bull's-eye (Hercules) (disc form). 

12 R. S. Q. (Du Pont). 

13 Du Pont Military Rifle Powder 
No. 21. 

14 King's Smokeless Rifle Nos. 2, 3, 
and 4. 

15 King's Smokeless Shotgun. 

15 Robin Hood. 

16 Du Pont Sporting Rifle Powder 
No. 80. 

17 Walsrode H. P. Military. 

iS Walsrode for Black Powder 
Rifles. 

19 Walsrode Green. 

20 Walsrode Gray. 
si Wolf. 

22 Du Pont Military Rifle No. 10. 

23 Du Pont Military Rifle No. 19. 

23 HiVeL Rifle (Hercules). 

24 Du Pont Military Rifle Powder 

No. 18. 

25 Du Pont Military Rifle Powder 

No. 15. 







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RELOADING AMMUNITION 



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346 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

portion of the measure a little blow. This blow does two things, it 
insures all the grains of powder which have been measured off by the 
measure being jarred into the shell, and it insures the even jarring down 
of the powder in the reservoir so as to uniformly fill the measure each 
time it is presented to the powder in the reservoir. Empty the pow- 
der IN THIS FIRST SHELL BACK INTO THE RESERVOIR AGAIN BECAUSE 
THE FIRST SHELL IS APT NOT TO BE EXACTLY CORRECT AS TO CHARGE. 

Then proceed with filling all the shells with powder in this manner, 
keeping your wits about you, and being sure that each shell gets its 
full, uniform, properly jarred down load, and no more. Take the 
shells in rows of ten. If you are forced to stop while filling the shells, 
make a careful inspection before you start in again. See that all the 
shells to your left are absolutely empty, and that all on your right have 
the full charge. Have a regular method of working, and let nothing 
break the rhythm of it. In this way you are perfectly safe, and you 
will get uniform results. 

Having all the shells filled, we are ready to seat the bullets. Insert 
the double adjustable chamber in the reloading tool. This chamber 
has a crimping shoulder in it. You do not want to crimp your shells 
as they are to hold the bullet merely friction tight. Therefore the 
chamber should not be screwed up into the tool far enough to make 
this crimping shoulder crimp the shell. (By crimping the shell is 
meant bending or crimping the mouth of the shell into a groove in the 
bullet in order to hold it. The particular bullet in the case before us 
has no groove and is intended to be held securely in the shell by hav- 
ing the shell slightly smaller than the bullet and then forcing the bullet 
into the small neck.) Now take a ready loaded factory cartridge and 
place it into the chamber and close the tool. Screw up the lower end 
of the double adjustable chamber until the pressure is felt on the upper 
handle. In other words, screw up the lower portion of the chamber 
so that it will just seat the bullet to the standard depth, and no more. 
Now we are ready to seat our bullets in the filled shells. Take a shell 
in the left hand, keeping the muzzle up so as to avoid spilling the pow- 
der. Take a bullet in the right hand and insert its base into the mouth 
of the shell. It can be stuck in by the fingers a very slight distance so 
that it will balance itself there. Then take the reloading tool with the 
tool upside down, that is the chamber above the jaws, and insert the 
cartridge into the chamber, closing the handle and seating the bullet to 
the required depth. No force will be required to do this, the handle 
closing easily. Extract the cartridge and place it to one side. If the 



RELOADING AMMUNITION 347 

bullet gets off of the mouth of the shell, and the tool is then closed, 
of course the bullet will not enter the shell, and if pressure enough is 
exerted one side of the shell will be mashed down and deformed. To 
avoid this, just as you insert the shell with bullet balanced in its mouth 
into the chamber push it up snug into the chamber and give the base 
of the shell a slight twist, and you can feel the bullet being centered 
correctly over the mouth of the shell, then hold it there with one finger 
while you close the handle. This completes the operation of reloading. 
Wipe off all the various tools with an oily rag except the inside of the 
reservoir of the powder measure. It is well to keep the powder meas- 
ure filled with powder until the very end of the reloading, as you may 
spill the powder in some shell and wish to refill it. Empty the powder 
measure, running the surplus powder back into its can, and you are 
through. 

In the above example the various little details which are learned by 
experience have been very fully gone into, and described minutely in 
an effort to pave the way of the novice and render the first trial easy 
to the end that more may resort to reloading their shells. The ques- 
tion will at once present itself, how long does all this take? I care- 
fully timed myself through this entire operation, including the time 
necessary to get the materials off of the shelf above the loading bench, 
and to set up and adjust the tools, and it totalled up as follows for one 
hundred cartridges : 

Extracting primers 4 minutes 30 seconds 

Resizing shells 5 " 

Enlarging necks of shells 5 " 15 " 

Priming shells 8 

Adjusting powder measure 3 " 

Filling shells with powder 2 " 30 " 

Seating bullets 6 " 10 " 

Total time 29 minutes 25 seconds 

The novice should be able to approximate this speed about the fifth 
trial. As I only go through the operation of reloading, say, once a 
month, I am not necessarily very skilled at it to the extent of speeding 
it up. 

We have followed very thoroughly the simple case of reloading with 
jacketed bullets purchased at the factory, and smokeless powder. 
There are a few other operations that we need to be familiar with. 



348 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

WEIGHING POWDER CHARGES 

The Ideal powder measure will measure the finer grained powders 
very accurately. In small charges the error is probably not greater 
than half a grain. However, some of the long tubular grains of the 
coarser powders stack up quite a little in the measure so that the 
charges are liable to differ as much as 2V2 grains, and this is entirely 
too much of an error, especially where one is loading charges giving 
high breech pressures. When loading a cartridge giving the highest 
allowable pressure for a certain rifle a couple of grains over is liable 
to run the pressure up to such an extent that the primer is either 
pierced, or the primer pocket enlarged. This results in an escape of 
powder at very high pressure to the rear. This escaping powder may 
seriously injure the breech mechanism of the rifle, may even com- 
pletely wreck it and seriously injure the shooter, or at the very least 
it will jam the rifle. 

To get the most accurate results from a cartridge the powder 
charge should be uniform. Uniform charges are required for uni- 
form velocity. A difference of I grain in weight of powder charge 
in the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge will cause a difference in 
striking point on the 1000 yard target of about 20 inches, but the 
difference will not be proportional at shorter ranges. A difference 
of 1 grain in this cartridge would not, for example, cause 2 inches 
difference in point of impact at 100 yards, but it would cause a slight 
difference nevertheless. For the best results in target shooting, par- 
ticularly in long-range shooting, it is very desirable that powdei 
charges be weighed, and not measured, to get them absolutely uni- 
form. Here is where the hand loader can improve on the factory 
product, as the factory must speed up in order to reduce cost of 
manufacture, and cannot rely on getting charges much more uniform 
than within say half a grain, whereas the rifleman reloading himself, 
and taking pains, can get every charge uniform to within about Y10 
grain. The difference between errors of ¥2 grain and lio grain will 
result in a difference of about 8 inches in the size of the shot group 
at 1000 yards, other things being equal. 

As a rule it is best always to weigh the charges when using the 
following powders: Du Pont powders Kos. 10, 13, 15, 16, and 20. 
Hercules W. A. 30-caliber powder. The other powders will meas- 
ure quite accurately in the Ideal powder measure, plenty accurately 
enough for hunting and for all uses except the very finest target 
shooting and experimental work. 



RELOADING AMMUNITION 349 

Any delicate scales weighing to within Mo grain troy weight, and 
having a capacity of from 5 to 70 grains, is satisfactory for weigh- 
ing powder charges, but often the rifleman may wish to weigh bullets 
or complete cartridges as well, and it is better, if purchasing a new 
set of scales, to purchase one having a capacity up to 500 grains at 
least. One of the best scales, the one usually used by expert rifle- 
men, is made by the Fairbanks Company, and is known as the Miner's 
assay scale. It costs in the neighborhood of $10. The weights are 
not loose, but are attached to an arm, which is a great advantage. 
In using the scales they should be set up on a fairly level table and 
then carefully levelled. Never try to use them where there is any 
current of air as no accurate results can be obtained where wind 
blows on the scales. After getting the scales set up, always test 
them by placing the weights on the arm at zero (or in the case of 
separate weights, removing all weights) and see if the scale balances 
correctly at zero. 

The weighing is best done in conjunction with the Ideal powder 
measure. Set the powder measure to give about one grain less than 
the required amount. Hold the detachable pan of the scales under 
the powder measure and throw the charge on to the pan. Place the 
pan on the scales, where it will of course weigh too light. Have an 
empty shell of a caliber other than that which you are reloading so 
as not to get the two mixed, filled with powder, and gently tap a 
little of this grain by grain into the pan until the pointer or arm of 
the scales comes to zero, showing the correct weight. Have a little 
funnel rigged up so that the end of its tube is several inches above 
the table. Place a shell under the funnel, carefully lift the pan off 
the scales, and empty the powder into the shell, giving the funnel a 
slight tap so as to be sure that all the powder runs into the shell. 
It takes time to measure powder charges, probably about one minute 
per round. A powder scale is also a great convenience to measure 
the first two or three charges thrown from the powder measure in 
any case, as then one always knows exactly how much powder he is 
using. Personally, even when I am going to use the powder measure 
alone for loading, I always weigh the first two or three charges to 
see that the measure is throwing the exact amount, but this is a little 
nicety that is not absolutely necessary except where positive results 
are necessarv. 



35o THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

SEATING LEAD AND ALLOY BULLETS 

When lead bullets, or bullets composed of an alloy of lead and tin, 
are to be seated in shells the inside of the neck of the shell should be 
sized down and then expanded so that it is about .00025 inches 
smaller than the bullet just as in the case of metal-jacketed bullets. 
Another operation is needed also, for if one attempts to seat a lead 
bullet in such a shell with no further treatment the sharp corners of 
the mouth of the shell will shave the bullet, making it smaller in 
diameter, and causing a film of lead to over-ride the outside of the 
shell. So the sharp edge of the mouth of the shell must be chamfered 
or bevelled off slightly to remove the square corner. This can be 
done with a knife, but when the knife is used for this purpose so great 
care must be taken to get each shell uniformly bevelled, and only 
slightly so, that it takes a great deal of time. It is very much better 
to procure an Ideal shell chamfering reamer which does the work per- 
fectly and very quickly. The tool is inserted in the mouth of the 
shell, given a complete turn under slight pressure, and the job is done. 
Then invert the shell and give it a tap on the table to insure that no 
brass shavings remain inside the shell. A shell once chamfered need 
not be so treated again, also it apparently does not injure the shell for 
use with jacketed bullets. The bevel need not be at all large. In 
fact it should be as small as possible, a very small bevel sufficing to 
take the sharp edge off and prevent the shaving of the bullet. 

BULLET MOULDING 

The moulding of lead and alloy bullets is an art in itself. It takes 
quite a little practice to become proficient at it. I should say that a 
careful man can learn to turn out perfect bullets in about five trials. 
Certain facilities are absolutely necessary, and it is practically impos- 
sible to turn out good, well-formed bullets on the kitchen stove or 
camp fire. The outfit necessary is as follows : 

I Ideal bullet mould for the bullet desired. 

1 Ideal dipper for running bullets. 

I Ideal melting pot, or similar plumbers melting pot. 

1 pair heavy leather gloves. 

1 blanket. 

1 stick of hard wood. 

1 stove for melting the lead. 

A small quantity of heavy grease or bullet lubricant. 

The best stoves for the use of the individual rifleman are either a 
Primus stove, burning kerosene vapor, or else a Bunsen burner for 



RELOADING AMMUNITION 1 



35i 



gas. Either of these will do excellent work. Arrange the stove on 
a small box, so that the top of the stove will come several inches above 
the top of the chair on which you are going to sit. The operation 
will take a couple of hours so you should make yourself comfortable, 
and also you will need plenty of fresh air, but not a breeze which would 




Screw B prevents screw A from 
loosening. Dowel pin C keeps both 
halves In alignment. 




Cut full size. 



Fig. 83 
Ideal bullet mould and dipper 

bother your stove. It will be a pretty hot job. To the left of the 
stove should be a low table or box over which is spread the blanket, 
folded to five or six thicknesses. On the right side you should have 
a large tin box, or old tin can into which you will from time to time 
dump the dross. 

Bullets are almost always alloyed with tin to make them slightly 
harder. Pure lead bullets are suitable only for black-powder rifles 
having very low velocity and a very slow twist of rifling. Bullets for 
the .45-70 Springfield and Winchester rifles, for example, are cast 
of an alloy of 1 part by weight of tin to 16 parts of lead, and in 



352 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

weighing out the metal to be used weigh out i ounce of tin to every 
16 ounces of lead. If the bullets are intended for use in short-range 
loads in high-power rifles they should be cast of a i to 10 alloy. 
Bullets for the .32-40 and .38-55 do very well at 1 to 32. But when 
we come to black-powder rifles it is hard to say just what the alloy 
should be, as so much depends upon bullet upset, and as a rule the 
rifleman will have to do a lot of experimenting with different alloys 
and different lots of powder to get the best results. For bullets to 
use in .30-caliber rifles and others having very quick twist the Ideal 
Manufacturing Company make up two hard alloys called Ideal bullet 
metal. Ideal bullet metal No. 1 is composed of 80 parts lead, 7 parts 
of antimony, and 3 parts copper. It makes a very hard, tough alloy, 
much harder than the rifleman himself can mix unless he has some 
knowledge of metallurgy. It is recommended particularly for gas- 
check bullets in rifles having very quick twists such as the .30 calibers, 
the .25-35 caliber, and various small-bore, foreign rifles. It also 
mixes or amalgamates better with pure lead than does tin, and so can 
be used to make softer mixtures, mixing it with pure lead in accord- 
ance with the following table: 

part tin to 10 parts lead equals 1 part Ideal bullet metal No. I to 1% parts lead. 

" " " 15 ' I 

" " " 20 " " " 1 

" " " 25 " " " I 

" " " 30 " " " 1 

" " "35 " " " 1 

" " " 40 " " " 1 

Ideal bullet metal No. 2 is composed of 90 parts of lead, 5 parts 
of tin, and 5 parts of antimony. This mixture is just suited to Ideal 
gas-check bullets when used in ordinary sporting rifles having twists 
slower than one turn in ten inches. It is also excellent for alloy 
bullets without gas-check for all types of rifles where the twist is 
quicker than one turn in 16 inches, and where smokeless powder is 
used. It can be alloyed with pure lead to give a softer bullet in ac- 
cordance with the following table : 

For 



" I 


' 3 


" I 


" 41/4 


" I 


" 5 V - 


" I 


" 6% 


' " I 


" 8 


" I 


" 9% 



1 to 15 


alloy 


add 


V2 part 


lead 


by weight 


1 " 20 


" 




1 


11 


" " 


1 " 25 


* 4 


'* 


ill- " 


a 


" " 


1 " 30 


* 




2 '* 


" 


if u 


1 35 


** 


** 


2V2 " 


" 


u a 


1 " 40 


" 


" 


3 


" 


" " 



It is well to work with quite a lot of metal at a time, about 10 
pounds is correct, because this amount will hold its heat well, and 



RELOADING AMMUNITION' 



353 



will run much better bullets than a smaller amount. What is not 
used can always be retained in the pot and used again. When through 
with the lead in the pot always scratch figures on it giving the propor- 
tions of the alloy so that the next time you come to mould bullets you 
will know just the hardness of this piece of lead. 

Place the pot on the stove and start the latter going. If it is a 
Primus stove you will need to keep it going to its full capacity almost 
all the time. Put a small quantity of lead in first, cut in thin pieces 
as it will melt quicker. After you have a little pool of molten lead 
in the pot you can stick the end of a billet of lead in it and it will 
quickly melt up. In this way you will get the lead melted much 
quicker than if you placed a great quantity in at a time. After the 
lead is all melted, put in the tin, and when it is melted stir the metal 
a little. Then add a piece of thick grease, beeswax, or bullet lubricant 
about the size of a chestnut and stir rapidly. Much smoke will be 
given off. This will flux the metal and make it flow better. Then 
stir rapidly. The surface of the metal will now be found cov- 
ered with a varicolored dross. This should be skimmed off and 
thrown into the can at your right side. While you are moulding 
bullets, the metal should always present a bright, clear, mirror-like 
surface. A little dross will arise from time to time and will have to 
be skimmed off. If too much arises it is a sign that your metal is too 
hot. The metal should be hot enough to flow freely, but never too 
hot. Always use the Ideal dipper for skimming and for pouring lead 
into the mould. Keep it in the metal at all times as it must be as hot 
as the metal, or metal in it will chill, will not pour well, and will stick 
to the dipper. Never use an ordinary open dipper, as perfect bullets 
cannot be obtained with it, and of course anything but perfect bullets 
are absolutely useless. 

A new mould will not cast good bullets. It must first be used 
until it becomes thoroughly oxidized and blued, and this is best ac- 
complished by casting bullets in it, and throwing them back into the 
pot until the mould gets broken in. Sometimes one will have to cast 
several hundred bullets in a new mould before it gets to working 
smoothly. Moreover the mould must be very hot, almost as hot 
as the metal, to cast good bullets. The lead and the mould should 
be kept at such a temperature that it will require about three seconds 
for the lead in the pouring hole of the mould to solidify after it has 
been disconnected with the dipper. From this one will see that when 
he has a new mould he cannot expect even fair results for an hour 



354 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

or two after he starts in. With an old, well-broken-in mould, good 
bullets will start to come as soon as the mould has gotten to the re- 
quired heat. While the lead is melting place the bullet mould along- 
side the outside of the pot where a little flame from the stove will 
heat it, thus warming it up. 




Fig. 84 

Ideal dipper, bullet mould, and melting pot, showing method of connecting dipper 

to mould when running bullets 

When ready to run the bullets, raise the dipper nearly full from the 
pot, hold the dipper over the pot, and connect the mould to the nozzle 
of the dipper, then turn the dipper with the mould connected, slowly to 
the vertical position (see Fig. 84), and the weight of the metal in the 
dipper above the mould will drive out the air and fill the mould per- 
fectly, assuring good, full, smooth bullets without the spilling of a 
particle of metal. With an open dipper you cannot get this perfect 
filling of the mould. After the nozzle of the dipper has been in con- 
tact with the mould for several seconds in the vertical position, quickly 
tilt the dipper back, and part it from the mould, leaving a little lead 
in the pouring hole in the cut off of the mould. It should take this 
lead in the pouring hole about three seconds to solidify if everything 
is at the right temperature. Hold the mould closed for about three 
more seconds after the lead in the pouring hole solidifies, then 
strike the cut-off arm of the mould with a billet of wood, causing 
the lead in the skrew hole to fall back into the pot, then shift the 
mould over to the left, and hold it a couple of inches above the folded 
blanket, and open the handles. The bullet should drop out on to the 
blanket if the mould is a perfect one. As a matter of fact it seldom 
does. A mould which will always drop out its bullets is a joy forever. 
Usually the bullet will stick slightly to one or the other half of the 
mould. If so tap with the billet of wood on the extreme end of the 



RELOADING AMMUNITION 355 

wood handle of the mould attached to the half of the mould to which 
the bullet is sticking, tapping towards the bullet, and the bullet will 
almost always fall out without deforming itself. Or else hold the 
half in which the bullet sticks with the bullet downward, over the 
folded blanket, and tap the under side of the mould near the bullet 
lightly. Never strike the mould with a hammer or other metallic 
substance, for it will ruin it. The hingle joint of the mould should be 
occasionally touched with grease or beeswax to lubricate it. Never 
try to pry a bullet out of a mould as it is impossible to use any sharp 
metal tool across the sharp corners of the mould without ruining it. 
If the handles of the mould become too hot dip them in a pail of 
water. Never attempt to heat the mould by immersing it in the metal, 
for slag will burn on it and ruin it. Remember that a new mould 
takes a long time to break in, and you will have to scrap many bullets 
at first. Examine the bullet as you open the mould, and if it is not 
absolutely perfect, full, smooth, and clean cut in every respect, scrap 
it by emptying it back into the pot again instead of on to the blanket. 
In dropping bullets on to the blanket see that they do not strike each 
other as they are very soft when hot, and are easily damaged in this 
way. Always have a good, soft surface to drop them on. Dropping 
bullets on a board ruins them. Remember, the only kind of a bullet 
you have the slightest use for is one which is perfectly formed, of the 
exact weight, exactly round, and with a perfectly square base. This 
means that everything must be working perfectly, and that after 
moulding the bullets they should be handled carefully, removing them 
from the blanket one by one, and either standing them base down on 
the loading table to be lubricated, or else stacking them carefully in 
paste board boxes. I remember once an enthusiastic rifleman show- 
ing me some bullets he had moulded. He had them loose in a cigar 
box, and as he exhibited them he tilted the box from side to side, 
rolling the bullets around. Not one of those bullets was fit for shoot- 
ing, as all their bases were dulled unevenly. 

A good mould, well broken in, is a precious article. Take care of 
it by covering it inside and out with heavy wax after use, and before 
it gets cold, and then put it away in a small wood box, not cardboard 
box, because cardboard absorbs dampness badly. Do not wrap it in 
a woolen cloth for the same reason. All metal articles are best pro- 
tected from rust by drying them thoroughly after cleaning, then cov- 
ering them with heavy grease, and then packing them away where 
nothing but wood will touch them. 



356 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



LUBRICATING AND SIZING BULLETS 



Bullets are always cast several thousandths of an inch larger than 
the standard, the bullet moulds being made slightly oversize, and it is 




Fig. 85 
Ideallubricator and sizer 

intended that they shall be sized down to the required size. Most 
reloading tools contain a sizing hole and a plunger. They are ab- 
solutely worthless. Do not attempt to use them. Besides the sizing 



RELOADING AMMUNITION 357 

die should be specially made of the correct diameter for your par- 
ticular barrel. 

Also bullets should always be lubricated ; that is, should have their 
grooves filled with lubricant. This should be done before sizing them, 
as it makes them pass through the sizing die easier, and the die presses 
the lubricant well into the grooves. Bullets can be lubricated by 
placing them base down in a pan, and pouring the melted lubricant 
around them until it arises above the top groove. Then when the 
lubricant is cool, take a shell which has had the head cut off, and which 
has been enlarged a little at the neck, and press it down over bullet, 
after bullet. This cuts the surplus grease off, and the bullets pass 
upward through the shell. This is a crude method, much lubricant 
flakes off, and it is not to be recommended. 

For several years I tried various methods of lubricating and sizing 
bullets without even fair success. The bullet was usually poorly lu- 
bricated, and practically ruined in the sizing process. Then the Ideal 
Manufacturing Company placed their Ideal bullet lubricator and sizer 
on the market, and the rifleman's troubles in this respect were at an 
end. This machine does the work so perfectly that no one who moulds 
his ow r n bullets can possibly get along without it. There is nothing 
else on the market like it, so I do not hesitate to recommend it. The 
machine will take sizing dies adapted to bullets of any size, and one 
can have a number of dies for his various rifles and bullets and use 
them in the one machine. The machine here illustrated (Fig. 85) 
first sizes the bullet, then while the bullet is still in the sizing die it 
receives the lubricant under considerable pressure, and the forcing 
of the bullet out of the die removes all the surplus lubricant. 

For many years riflemen have experimented with various lubri- 
cating materials. Mr. E. A. Leopold, an old-time rifleman of Norris- 
town, Pennsylvania, invented a lubricant which he called " Banana 
Lubricant " which was so excellent that it was quickly adopted by 
practically all expert riflemen. He made it for many years for the 
Ideal Manufacturing Company. It is made in sticks correct for use 
in the lubricator and sizer. To date no one else has discovered a 
lubricating material which can touch it. Full instructions for the 
use of the lubricator of course accompany the machine. 

CLEANING SHELLS 

Shells which have been fired with smokeless powder do not need 
any cleaning unless they are to be left loaded for a long time, say 




358 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

several years. They must of course be carefully cared for after they 
are fired, and before reloading. Do not permit them to get dirty, 
wet, or injured. 

Shells which have been fired with black powder must be thoroughly 
washed, cleaned, and quickly dried, or they will corrode badly. Cor- 
roded shells are weakened, they will not contain as much powder, arid 
they will in time ruin the powder in them. To clean black-powder 
shells, decap them and place them in a pan of very hot water and 
soap suds. Scrub them out inside with a bristle brush, changing the 
water frequently until the shells no longer make the water dirty. 
Then wash them again in a little very hot water in which several 
teaspoonsful of vinegar has been placed, and then rinse them again 
in clear water. Finally put them in a pot of water and boil them. 
Then, while still boiling, pour them into a colander, shake them a 
little, and swing over the hot stove for several minutes. Effort should 
be made to get them dry of their own heat within about five minutes 
of taking them from the last water. Never place them in a hot oven 
to dry as this will anneal them, and make them so soft that they will 
be useless. It will often be necessaiy to use a piece of cloth on a 
sharp stick to clean out and dry the primer pockets, and this should 
be looked after especially as no dampness should be left here for 
corrosion in this portion of the shell is very serious. 

This method of cleaning will not suffice with shells which have been 
fired with smokeless powder, as the smokeless residue is very tena- 
cious, and soap and hot water make no impression on it. Acid must 
be used, but used in such a manner that it does not injure the brass. 
Procure two large glass jars. Preserve jars with large necks will 
do nicely. Fill No. i with a solution of i quart of water, 2 fluid 
ounces of sulphuric acid, and 2 ounces of potassium bichromate. 
Similarly fill No. 2 jar with a solution consisting of one-fourth pound 
of potassium cyanide in one quart of water. Be careful of these 
solutions as they are both of them deadly poison. If mixed they will 
be ruined, and will also give off poisonous fumes. It is best to place 
one of these jars on either side of a stationary wash basin full of 
running water, but a bucket of water between them will answer well 
if the water is changed frequently. 

Take a short piece of steel or iron wire and bend it in the form of a 
double hook, using it to dip the shells with. Two shells are washed at 
a time. Rinse the shells, first in the water in the middle receptacle, 
then dip them in No. 1 solution for not more than five seconds, then 



RELOADING AMMUNITION 359 

rinse thoroughly in the water, then dip in No. 2 solution for several 
seconds. If this does not make them bright all over rinse off again 
and go through the dipping in each solution again. Always rinse 
thoroughly after dipping in each solution. Finally, after dipping in 
the No. 2 solution for the last time, drop the shells in a pan of clean 
water. After you have cleaned all the shells in this manner, and 
they are all in the pan of clean water, place them in a kettle, boil them, 
pour into a colander, shake, and swing them over a stove for several 
minutes so as to make them dry quickly of their own heat. In clean- 
ing the shells change the water in the rinsing basin or bucket fre- 
quently so as to keep it clean. The solutions can be used over and 
over again many times until they fail to clean quickly. This method 
results in shells as clean as when new, and does not injure the shells. 
The secret of preventing corrosion when washing shells is to get 
them to dry thoroughly within five minutes after removing them from 
the last water, but they must never be subjected to excessive heat or 
they will anneal or soften. 

THE " IDEAL HANDBOOK " 

The Ideal Manufacturing Company of New Haven, Connecticut, 
make practically all the reloading tools made in this country. They 
issue a catalogue called the " Ideal Handbook." This is really a 
manual of instruction in reloading, and is full of valuable information 
to riflemen and particularly to those who reload their own ammunition. 

Before closing this subject it is perhaps well to call attention to the 
fact that loading ammunition as distinguished from reloading is also 
profitable, as one can purchase shells, bullets, primers, and powder at 
a combined cost of less than factory-loaded cartridges, and assembling 
them with reloading tools, make a considerable saving. 



CHAPTER XIV 
TRAJECTORY 

THE trajectory of a bullet fired from a rifle is dependent upon its 
initial velocity and its remaining velocity. The greater these are, 
the smaller will be the time of flight over any range, and the flatter 
will be the trajectory. A flat trajectory, and its necessary accompani- 
ment of high velocity, is a great advantage in any cartridge. It is espe- 
cially advantageous to the rifleman who has to fire at estimated ranges, 
to the hunter and the soldier, because it minimizes the errors that 
result from an incorrect estimate of the range. Suppose we estimate 
the range to a certain big-game animal to be 150 yards, and we set our 
sights accordingly. Now suppose that this range is actually 200 yards, 
and we have made an error in the estimate of 50 yards. If we are 
using a rifle of high trajectory like the .45-70-500, our bullet will 
strike about 14 inches low, enough to pass under the body of the 
animal. Suppose, however, we are using the .30-caliber, Model 1906 
cartridge with a velocity of 2700 feet per second, and a very flat tra- 
jectory. From 150 to 200 yards our bullet will only fall about 5 inches, 
and we still stand a chance of getting a hit in a vital part. 

The target shot usually fires at known ranges and he is not troubled 
with errors from incorrect estimate of the range. Nevertheless a flat 
trajectory is of importance to him also, because a flat trajectory is 
always accompanied with high velocity and a short time of flight, and 
this means that the bullet will be in the air a shorter time to be influ- 
enced by the wind. Certain slight changes in the velocity of the wind, 
which with a low-velocity bullet would cause enough deflection to make 
the bullet miss the bull's-eye, would not cause enough error to take a 
high-velocity bullet out. For example, we found when we used the 
.30-40 Krag rifle with a muzzle velocity of 2000 feet per second and a 
220-grain, blunt-pointed bullet at long range, that slight changes in the 
velocity of the wind, changes so slight that even the most expert could 
not estimate them without an anemometer, would frequently drift the 
bullet out of the bull's-eye, sometimes even as far as a " three." When 
we changed to the .30 Model 1903 rifle, using the 150-grain sharp- 
pointed bullet at 2700 feet per second we found that almost all our 
trouble with these slight changes of wind velocity were gone, as they 

.360 



TRAJECTORY 



361 



were not sufficient to drift the bullet out of the bull's-eye, and hence 
we were able to make much better scores. 

Ever since the adaptation of high-velocity rifles to sporting purposes 
some twenty years ago the majority of sportsmen have regarded the 
flatness of trajectory as being the most important element in a hunting 
arm. The questions always asked are: How flat is its trajectory? 
What is its velocity? The thought is that the flatter the trajectory, the 
longer the range at which sure hits can be made, and the less important 
the question of accurate estimate of range. Other things being equal, 
these facts are undoubtedly so; but are other things always equal? 
How about accuracy ? Will a cartridge which, when fired at 200 yards 
raises only 4 inches above the line of aim at 100 yards, give as good 
accuracy as another which raises 6 inches ? Suppose we have two rifles, 
one giving a 4-inch trajectory at 200 yards and requiring a 12-inch circle 
to hold its group of 10 shots at that range, and the other having an 8-inch 
trajectory but only requiring a 4-inch circle to hold its group. Which 
will have the longer point-blank range at which sure hits can be made ? 

Some years ago Horace Kephart discussed the subject of trajectory 
and point-blank range as follows : " Thus, for example, let us say that 
an 8-inch disk represents that part of a deer in which a bullet may be 
counted upon to inflict a mortal wound; then the deer's killing zone 
would be that distance throughout which the trajectory of the bullet 
would cut an 8-inch disk. For open country, where long shots are 
the rule, the rifle may then be sighted for an extreme rise of 4 inches 
above the line of aim, and the killing zone for deer will extend to that 
point where the descending bullet falls 4 inches below the line of aim. 
Remember that the line of aim or sight is different from the line of fire 
(prolongation of axis of bore), and that it is in the shooter's favor, as 
will be seen below. 

"Assuming, for example, that the highest point of the trajectory 
above the line of fire is 4% inches for a given rifle when sighted to strike 
center at 160 yards, and that this highest point is at 80 yards (it would 
really be a little nearer the target but the difference is trifling at short 
ranges) , also that the top of the front sight is 1 inch above the axis of the 
bore, then the trajectory would be about as shown in the following table : 



Trajectory- 


Distance in yards 


20 


40 


60 


80 


100 


120 


140 


160 


Above line of fire, inches 
Sight allowance, inches 
Above line of aim, inches 


I.89 

.87V2 
I.02 


3-33 

■75 
2.58 


4.19 
.62V2 

3.46 


4-So 

•So 

4.00 


4.28 
•37% 
3.90 


3-47 

•25 

3.22 


2.07 

.I2V2 
1.94 










362 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

This would be good for deer shooting up to about 200 yards without 
change of aim or estimation of distance. 

" But such trajectory would be too high for shots near by. In the 
thick woods, where most shots are fired at from 40 to 100 yards, a rise 
of 2Y2 inches at 40 yards, and 3H at 60 yards, would be excessive. For 
hunting in a locality where there is plenty of cover this rifle should be 
sighted to strike center at about 80 yards, and it would then shoot on 
a line practically level up to 100 yards." 

Let us suppose that the rifle referred to by Mr, Kephart was the old 
reliable .30-40 Winchester. We see that if the rifle be sighted for 160 
yards and the game be 200 yards away, the bullet descending falls 4 
inches below the line of aim, and the rifle will evidently give a sure 
shot into the vitals of a deer at this range. But is this absolutely so? 
Let us look at the accuracy for a minute. A large number of accuracy 
tests with this rifle have shown conclusively that the average size of 
groups at 200. yards is 7 inches. Thus if the rifleman does his part 
correctly he will be sure only of getting his shot within 3V6 inches of 
the trajectory line at 200 yards. We have seen that when the rifle is 
sighted for 160 yards it will fall 4 inches low at 200 yards, and that it 
will still hit in the vitals of a deer standing at that range. But will it ? 
Suppose that the particular shot fired at that deer is the one which flies 
to the bottom of the group. That is, it flies 3^ inches low. Now we 
have not 4 inches low for the hit on that deer, but 4 inches plus 3M2 
inches, or y¥t inches, and our shot misses the 8-inch vital disk by 3^2 
inches. We cannot therefore be sure of killing game at 200 yards with 
this rifle with the sights set for 160 yards and the range, unestimated. 
Two hundred yards is therefore beyond the point blank of this rifle 
for deer. It might be argued that a sure shot could be made at 160 
yards were it not for the fact that we cannot surely estimate the range 
correctly. 

By a similar computation we can figure out that, assuming that we 
do not attempt to estimate the range but use one sight setting and trust 
to flatness of trajectory to give us a vital hit, 140 yards is about the 
maximum range at which we can expect a sure hit under these circum- 
stances, and with this cartridge. This is not very comforting. The 
foreign makers of the 8 mm. rifle advertise for it a 300-yard, point- 
blank range, and as the .30-40 has almost the same trajectory as the 
8 mm., many hunters have come to regard that as the point blank of 
this arm. Here we find that in truth we must reduce it by 160 yards. 
We therefore see how inseparable we must consider trajectory and 



TRAJECTORY 



363 



accuracy. What is needed in our rifle catalogues and books is a table 
of accuracy as well as trajectory. One maker does indeed give the 
accurate range for his cartridges, but will some one please tell me what 
" accurate range " means ? Does it mean the range at which one can, 
if he does his own part correctly, hit a squirrel's head, or an 8-inch 
disk, or the standard military target? If the latter, pray what bull's- 
eye do they refer to when they say that a rifle is accurate to 700 yards ? 

Let us now turn to a more cheerful example. We have discarded 
our old friend the .30-40 for reasons above stated, and we are looking 
for a new arm for big-game shooting with which we can make sure 
shots at a longer range. Let us consider either the Model 1903 govern- 
ment rifle or the Winchester Model 1895 rifle, each shooting the .30- 
caliber, Model 1906 cartridge. This cartridge occurs to us because we 
know of its fine accuracy and its extremely flat trajectory. Also we 
have positive knowledge as to its accuracy. Below is a trajectory table 
for this cartridge for point-blank, big-game range in open country 
calculated with Mr. Kephart's rule, to which I have added the mean 
vertical deviation of the cartridge. In this table the rifle is sighted 
for 200 yards, and we see that should the game be at 100 yards the 
greatest deviation that can occur due to accuracy and trajectory will 
be a shot 2.80 inches above the point of aim, while at 225 yards the 
greatest deviation will be a shot 3.82 inches below the point of aim. 
The rifle will surely strike within the 8-inch vital disk up to 225 yards. 
If the theory of probabilities be taken into account the point-blank, 
big-game range may be slightly increased, until with the rifle sighted 
for 250 yards 50 per cent, of the shots will strike within the 8-inch 
disk at 275 yards. 

We thus again see how inseparably connected are trajectory and 
accuracy, and why, in making the choice of an arm, we should ask not 
only what is its trajectory and velocity, but what is its mean vertical 
and mean absolute deviation. 



.30 MODEL 1906 CARTRIDGE. POINT BLANK TRAJECTORY FOR 
OPEN COUNTRY 





Distance in yards 




100 


200 


225 


300 


Trajectory above line of fire, inches 


2.50 

■50 
2.00 

.80 

2.8o 









1.60 

1.60 


1. go 
.12 

2.02 
1.80 
3.82 




Trajectory below line of fire, inches 

Sight allowance, inches 


9.00 
•50 


Trajectory above line of aim, inches 


Trajectory below line of aim, inches 


9SO 

2.40 

1 1. go 


Mean vertical deviation, inches 


Maximum deviation from point of aim, inches 



CHAPTER XV 
KILLING POWER 

THE discussion as to the killing qualities of the various cartridges 
when used on big game has been going on for many years; in 
fact, it is probably as old as is the use of the rifle on game. As far 
back as 1886 sporting papers devoted columns to the subject, while in 
the English press we have records of discussions of this character 
ninety years ago. And still sportsmen disagree. First we had the 
" big- vs. small-bore discussion," then the " high- and low-velocity 
discussion " ; next we were treated to a dissertation on energy and foot 
pounds, and to'day it is all " explosive effect." We even see many men 
waxing eloquent in print on this subject who have never killed or 
seen killed a single head of big game in their lives. Therefore right 
at the start of this subject I had better qualify as to my right to discuss 
it by stating that as near as I can count up I have to date (August, 
1917) shot with my own rifle seventy-two head of big game. I have 
killed all the big game of North and Central America except bear, 
caribou, white sheep, musk-ox, tapir, puma, and jaguar. In addition 
I have been in at the death of, and have examined the wounds of, at 
least one hundred and fifty head besides those I have killed myself. 

What we should look for in a big-game cartridge is one that will 
cause the least suffering by killing as instantly as possible. While not 
sacrificing this killing power, we also need accuracy, so that we can 
surely hit a vital spot on our game; and flat trajectory, so that we can 
hit that spot at a distance, taking into consideration our error in esti- 
mating the range. What to look for in a big-game cartridge is, there- 
fore, first killing power, second accuracy, third trajectory. 

Probably the mightiest hunter who ever lived was Sir Samuel Baker, 
an Englishman, who hunted for many years during the middle of the 
last century in India, Africa, and also in North America. He killed 
every species of big game in these countries, his bag numbering many 
thousands. Rifles, and particularly their killing power, was a hobby 
of his, and he has left a lot of interesting literature on the subject. 
He had many special rifles made to his order in England. An ex- 
tremely large and powerful man, he could handle arms of very heavy 

364 



KILLING POWER 365 

weight and extreme recoil, which would have been absolutely out of 
the question for the ordinary sportsman. The largest rifle which he 
used on game weighed 20 pounds and had a barrel 36 inches long. It 
shot a bullet weighing ¥2 pound and containing a bursting charge of 
% ounce of fine-grained powder. The propelling charge was 16 drams 
of black powder. This was a veritable cannon. His favorite weapon 
for all game except buffalo and elephant was a .577 double-barrelled 
rifle, carrying a solid lead bullet of 648 grains, and a charge of 6 drams 
of black powder. He always was very strong in his condemnation of 
the light, hollow-point, express bullet. He states that after many years 
of experience in all the game fields of the world it is his opinion that 
the most killing missile that one can use against game is the largest 
bullet of soft lead that one can fire with comfort from the shoulder. 
Our own experience in black-powder days was exactly similar to this. 
We found that the large heavy bullet was always the better killer, and 
that light, hollow-point bullets could not be depended upon except for 
thin-skinned, easily killed game. What was needed was a bullet that 
would surely drive straight through into the vitals, in no matter what 
direction the animal was facing. Light bullets would often go to pieces 
and be stopped by a heavy bone, thus failing to reach a vital part. 
Most any rifle would kill if one got a fair, standing, broadside shot, 
and could aim accurately so as to reach the heart, but game cannot 
always be found standing in this position. Indeed the usual target 
one has will be a rear shot at game running away, and what is wanted 
is a bullet with a charge behind it that, in such a position, will plow 
right through into the chest vitals without being deviated or stopped by 
striking a heavy bone. The experience of our older hunters has been 
that by all odds the most killing rifle that was made in America in 
black-powder days was that shooting the 45-caliber bullet weighing 
500 grains. This bullet was a much better killer than the 45-330 
hollow-point bullet, or any of the lighter or smaller caliber bullets. It 
is to be understood that in the days of black powder the velocity varied 
only from about 1300 feet per second to about 1500 feet per second. 
All lead bullets expanded on hitting game to about double their diame- 
ter. The light, hollow-point bullets expanded a little more than the 
solid bullets, but were liable to break into several small pieces, lacked 
penetration, and were liable to deflection by bones. They were there- 
fore not as reliable as the long, heavy bullet. These lead bullets at low 
velocity did little damage to tissue that was not directly in the path of 
the bullet. 



366 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Upon the advent of smokeless powder and small-caliber rifles, sports- 
men evinced a desire to use them as sporting arms, believing that their 
flat trajectory would be of great advantage in game shooting. Cater- 
ing to this demand, the factories turned out experimentally some soft- 
nose bullets ; that is, bullets on which the metal jackets did not extend 
clear up to the point, but left from one-eighth to one-quarter of an 
inch of lead exposed at the nose. Upon trial it was found that such 
bullets were excellent killers on large game. The bullet expanded well, 
held together, and, moreover, seemed to " pulp " the tissue for several 
inches around the bullet hole. An extended experience proved that 
even here the long, heavy bullet had a decided advantage over the light 
bullet, the latter often being deflected and going to pieces on very 
large bones. For example, it was found that the long 220-grain bullet 
used in the .30-40 Krag cartridge was a much better killer on all game 
above deer than the light 160- or 170-grain bullet of the .30-30 rifle. 
The first small bore, smokeless, high-velocity bullets were all of .25 
or .30-caliber, and sportsmen gradually came of the opinion that such 
rifles, and particularly the .30-40, exceeded in killing power any of 
the larger bores, even the .45-70-500. I cannot say that I personally 
share this opinion. I have killed many head of game with the black 
powder arms, and of course in late years with the small caliber, high- 
velocity arms, and with the latter arms I have never gotten the large 
proportion of clean kills that I used to get with the heavy black powder 
rifles. With these latter rifles time after time the game has dropped so 
quickly to the shot that I did not see it go down on account of the view 
being momentarily blotted out by the recoil. With the smokeless arms 
the game seems to stagger around for. several seconds before going 
down, or else runs madly for from 50 to 100 yards before dropping. 
In this opinion I am backed up by quite a few sportsmen of extended 
experience, and particularly by Mr. James H. Kidder of the Boone 
and Crockett Club, the first sportsman to hunt the Alaska brown bear 
extensively. On these bear Mr. Kidder used both a .30-40 Winchester 
Model 1895 rifle and a .45-70-405 Winchester Model 1886 rifle. Mr. 
Kidder's experience was so extensive and so fortunately comparative 
as to leave no doubt whatever that on large bear the .45-70-405 with 
a muzzle energy of 1560 foot pounds was a much more killing cartridge 
than the .30-40 which has a muzzle energy of 1950 foot pounds. 

An occasional failure of the small bores on the largest game led to 
the placing on the market about 1903 of such cartridges as the .35 Win- 
chester with 250-gram bullet and the .405 Winchester with a 300-grain 



KILLING POWER 367 

bullet, and these calibers proved to have much greater killing power 
than the first small-bore, high-velocity arms. 

I do not wish it to be considered that I believe the old, heavy, black- 
powder arms to be better game guns than the high-velocity, smokeless 
arms. As I said at the start of this chapter, there are other things 
to consider besides killing power ; and the absence of smoke, the light 
recoil, the superior accuracy, and the high velocity of modern arms 
make it a much easier task to surely hit in a vital part, which fully 
makes up for the slightly superior shocking qualities of the large, heavy, 
soft-lead bullet. When the factories began to give us high-velocity, 
smokeless rifles of larger bore and using heavier bullets, we began to 
come nearer to the ideal big-game rifle, for we retained the lack of 
smoke, the light recoil, the accuracy, and the flat trajectory, and at the 
same time we got back some of the qualities of the old, big, black- 
powder rifles — the shocking power and the ability of the bullet to 
penetrate straight through in the direction in which aimed, no matter 
how the animal faced. Our heaviest rifle, the .405 Winchester, par- 
ticularly excels in this respect. 

About 1906, rifles with the extremely high velocity of 2700 feet per 
second began to appear. These were first brought out as military arms, 
and had a light, extremely sharp pointed, full-jacketed bullet. At first 
it was thought that such a bullet would penetrate cleanly, making only 
a very small hole. On trial, however, it was found that they had an 
explosive effect on tissue, and that they made extremely bad wounds 
and had good killing power. On striking they seemed to spin around 
.on their points, often penetrating sideways, and the high velocity ap- 
parently gave an explosive effect to their blow so that the tissue for a 
considerable distance around wouM be completely blown to pulp. 
This effect, as stated, occurred with the full-jacketed, light, sharp-point 
bullet. Such bullets were used considerably on game, but it was quickly 
found that they had one undesirable quality. They were found very 
frequently to glance off at a considerable angle when striking a bone, 
instead of penetrating into the vitals in the direction in which aimed. 
There are on record a number of instances where such bullets, aimed at 
an animal standing broadside, have struck a rib, and, glancing, have 
almost encircled the animal just under the skin, inflicting a painful, 
but not at all a killing, wound. The light, 150-grain .30-caliber, pointed 
bullet was a particular offender in this respect. The 170-grain bullet 
of the same caliber seems to have been a much better killer. The fac- 
tories took the matter up and quickly placed on the market soft-point, 



368 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

sharp-nosed bullets intended to be used in these rifles at extremely high 
velocity. Rifles firing these bullets at 2700 feet per second and up- 
wards have been found to be extremely effective on large game. The 
explosive effect is retained, even increased over the full- jacketed bullet, 
and there is no longer the tendency to glance. Undoubtedly such bul- 
lets are the big-game missiles of the future. At the same time we find 
that the old principle holds true, that the light, short bullet is liable to 
be deflected or to go to pieces on a very large, heavy bone, and fail to 
do its damage in the vitals, wdiile the heavy bullet smashes right through 
in the direction in which aimed. It is my opinion that in .30 caliber, 
the 150-grain, sharp-pointed, expanding bullet is a little too light for 
such game as moose and large bears, and that much better success will 
be had with a similar bullet of 170 or even 180 grains. A .30-caliber, 
expanding, pointed bullet of 170 grains, driven with a muzzle velocity 
of 2700 feet per second, is certainly a most killing and satisfactory 
charge for all game found in North America, and experience has shown 
that it is also excellent on all African game with the exception of ele- 
phant, buffalo, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus. These largest of all 
living animals require a much heavier rifle, and the experience of 
African hunters has shown that nothing less than a .40-caliber rifle, 
shooting a 400-grain bullet at 2000 feet per second can be considered 
as suitable for such game, and the standard weapon for such hunting 
has come to be a .450 or .465 rifle, shooting a 450-grain, jacketed bullet 
at from 2000 to 2200 feet per second. Such rifles are almost always 
double barreled, and are made in England. 

In the last two years there have appeared on the market several rifles 
of extremely small bore (.25 caliber), shooting light bullets varying 
from 86 grains to 123 grains, and with velocities running from 3000 
to 3300 feet per second. It is claimed that the explosive effect of such 
rifles is so great that they are suitable for all American game. I have 
tried such rifles on deer and am willing to accede to their killing quali- 
ties on such game, but I have my serious doubts as to their suitability 
for our largest game. There seems to be a desire, almost a madness, 
among some hunters (I will not call them sportsmen) to seek after the 
lightest and smallest bore rifle possible. It always seems strange to 
me that this is so, but it is undoubtedly a fact. I would like to go on 
record as being strongly opposed to the use of such arms on game 
larger than deer from a humanitarian point of view. Such a course is 
bound to cause much needless suffering. I grant that such rifles will 
kill quickly if the bullet chances to penetrate intact into the chest cavity 



KILLING POWER 369 

near to the heart, but this is not possible half the time with such arms 
because they have not the penetration. The bullet explodes when it 
hits, it fails to penetrate through any amount of tissue. It causes a 
bad wound where it hits, but the striking point is not half the time 
in such a location that the damage will reach into the chest cavity and 
to the heart, and when such is not the case there is inflicted an ex- 
tremely painful, dangerous wound which does not at all cripple the 
beast at the time, but which usually causes death after some days of 
extreme suffering. A man who will hunt moose and elk with a 
6-pound, .22-caliber, high-power rifle has very little regard for the 
suffering of dumb beasts ; at least so it seems to me, and the .25 caliber 
is going it only a little better. On the other hand, we know that rifles 
like the .30 caliber using a 170-grain bullet at 2700 feet per second, 
and the .405 Winchester, will, nine times out of ten, if the game be 
hit fairly near a vital point, and eight times out of ten if it be hit 
anywhere in the chest or abdominal cavity, kill almost instantly. The 
game does not suffer, and the conscience of the hunter is as clear as 
it can be. 

There has come in recent years a tendency to regard the energy of 
a cartridge as a correct measure of its killing power. I do not share 
in this belief. Only when the weight, shape, and construction of the 
bullet is the same would this hold true. Energy itself is no indication 
of the killing power. The .250 Savage high-power cartridge has a 
velocity of 3000 feet per second and uses an 87-grain bullet. Its muzzle 
energy is 1740 foot pounds. To say that this cartridge is as good, 
better, or anywhere near as good a killer on big game as the .45-70-500 
cartridge with its energy of only 1602 foot pounds is to my mind simply 
ridiculous. 

I append herewith my own opinion as to the killing qualities of a 
number of our cartridges. This list is the result of my experience of 
twenty-five years of hunting. I have talked this matter over with a 
number of sportsmen of international reputation, and also with a num- 
ber of guides of great experience in game shooting, and have found 
that almost invariably their experience leads to exactly the same con- 
clusions as mine. The cartridges are divided into several classes ac- 
cording to the class of game they are suitable for, and they are given 
in each class in what I consider their relative degree of killing power 
at ranges under 200 yards, beginning with the most powerful. The 
numbers in parenthesis give the relative degree of killing power (opin- 
ion) at ranges exceeding 200 yards. The figures after the name of the 



37o 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



cartridge are the bullet weight, the muzzle velocity, and the muzzle 
energy. The letter " S " after the name of a cartridge indicates that 
it is a special, hand-loaded cartridge, and cannot be procured from 
factories loaded to secure this ballistics (these cartridges are described 
in the chapter on " Cartridges "). An asterisk (*) after the name of a 
cartridge indicates that it is not recommended for shots at a range of 
over 150 yards. 

CLASS I 

The following cartridges will be found perfectly satisfactory for all 
American game, including Alaska brown bear, grizzly bear, and moose. 
They are needlessly powerful, but otherwise perfectly satisfactory for 
deer. 



Grs. 



Ft. per 
second 



Ft. lbs. 



(5) .405 Winchester 

(2) 9 mm. Mauser ( S ) 

(1) .30 Model 1906 (S) 

(6) .35 Winchester Model 95 

(3) 8 mm. Mauser 

(4) .30 Model 1906 

(7) 9 mm. Mauser 

(8) .45-70 United States government 



300 
280 


2,204 
2,200 


170 


2,700 


250 
236 


2,200 
2,129 


220 

280 


2,204 
1,850 


500 


1,20 1 



3.236 
3,009 

2,752 
2,687 

2,375 
2,374 
2,090 
1,602 



CLASS II 

The following cartridges will be found perfectly satisfactory for all 
American game except perhaps Alaska brown bear, grizzly bear, and 
moose. On these three species they can not be relied upon to give a 
large percentage of clean kills with the first shot. 



Grs. 



Ft. per 
second 



Ft. lbs. 



(1) .30 Model 1906 

(2) .30-40 Krag 

(3) 7 mm. Mauser 

(4) 6V2 mm. Mannlicher 

(5) -33 Winchester 

(6) .35 Remington auto. 
.45-90 high velocity * 
.45-70 high velocity * 



150 


2,700 


220 


2,000 


175 


2,300 


157 


2,313 


200 


2,056 


200 


2,00O 


300 


1,992 


300 


1,888 



2,428 

1-950 
2,056 
1,960 

1,877 
1,776 

2,644 

2,375 



CLASS III 

Deer cartridges. Often used for larger game, particularly by pro- 
fessional hunters, trappers, and Indians, but larger game than deer 
usually requires a number of shots to kill. This class are popular on 
account of cheapness, weight, and rifles and ammunition can be pro- 
cured almost anywhere. 



KILLING LOWER 



37i 



( 1 ) .303 Savage 

(3) -3 2 Winchester special 

(3) .2,2 Remington auto. . 

(2) .30-30 Winchester . . . 
(2) .30 Remington auto. . 

.401 Winchester auto.* 
(9) .250 Savage 

(4) .38-55 high power 

(5) .32-40 high power ... 

(6) .38-55 high velocity . 

(7) -32-40 high velocity . 

(8) .35-55. regular 

.44 Winchester * , 

•351 Winchester auto.* 





! Ft. per 




Grs. 


i second 


Ft. lbs. 


195 


1,952 


1,658 


170 


2,112 


1,684 


170 


2.II2 


1,684 


170 


2,008 


1-522 


[70 


2,020 


I,540 


■^50 


1,875 


1,952 


87 


3,000 


1.739 


255 


I.700 


1,635 


l65 


2,065 


1.558 


255 


1,593 


i,437 


165 


1.752 


1,124 


255 


1, 321 


988 


200 


1.300 


75i 


t8o 


1 .861 


1,385 



Varmint cartridges, 
ground squirrel, etc. 



CLASS IV 

Suitable for coyote, fox, woodchuck, Western 



( 1 ) .25 Remington auto. . . 

(2) .25-35 Winchester 

(3) -25-36 Marlin 

.22 Savage high power * 

(4) .32-40 regular 

(5) .28 Stevens 



Grs. 


Ft. per 

second 


Ft. lbs. 


117 
117 

117 


2,127 
1.978 
1,855 


I.I75 

1,175 

893 


70 


2,700 


1,132 


165 
I20 


1,450 
1,405 


770 

526 



CLASS V 

Squirrel and turkey cartridges. Also suitable for smaller varmints. 



( t ) .25-25 Stevens .... 

(2) .25-20 S. S 

(3) .25-21 Stevens 

(4) .25-20 repeater .... 

(5) .22 Winchester C. F. 
.25 rim fire * 





Ft. per 




Grs. 


second 


Ft. lbs. 


86 


1,551 


459 


86 


1,468 


412 


86 


I.440 


396 


86 


1.3/6 


362 


45 


1. 54 1 


237 


67 


1. 180 


208 



CLASS VI 

Grouse cartridges. Will kill grouse neatly without mangling. 



.25-25 Stevens 

.25-20 S. S. and Rep. 
.25-21 Stevens 



When loaded with light, sharp pointed 
hullets weighing about 77 grains, and 
[ with a light charge of powder. 



Grs. 



Ft. per 
second 



Ft. lbs. 



.22 Winchester C. F 

.25 rim fire * 

.22 Winchester rim fire * 



45 
67 
45 



1.54 r 
1,180 
U07 



2?,7 
280 



372 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

CLASS VII 

For indoor gallery shooting, rats, and English sparrows. 



Grs. 


Ft. per 
second 


Ft. lbs. 




1,103 

900 


I08 




54 





Many American cartridges have been ommitted from this list because 
they are seldom used and have almost become obsolete. The reader 
should also consult the chapter on " Cartridges " in connection with this 
list. 

In many cases the point of view of the sportsman very properly 
enters into the choice of a cartridge. For example : Perhaps a sports- 
man has been longing for years to take a moose hunt. At last the time 
comes when he can get away from business. The hunt will cost him, 
say, $500. On this trip he may get just one chance at a bull moose, 
and it is perhaps the only trip he will get in years. The success of the 
trip depends greatly on his getting the coveted trophy, and everything 
possible should of course be done to insure the success of the trip. 
He has, we will say, a .33 Winchester rifle. It would appear foolish 
for him to risk the success of this trip by using this rifle when for about 
$40 additional he can procure a rifle like the .405 Winchester, with 
which the chances for a successful kill, particularly if he should get 
but one shot, are so much greater. 

On the other hand, a man who has already killed every species of 
American game can afford to be independent. The procuring of a 
trophy is no longer absolutely necessary to the success of the trip. I 
believe that such a man will obtain more satisfaction from an " all- 
around " rifle of fine accuracy, one like the .30-40 Winchester single 
shot, which will shoot both high power and reduced loads with great 
accuracy and with practically the same sight setting. With such a rifle 
he will take pride in skillful stalking, and in clean kills Avith the first 
shot, and such kills will bring him as much satisfaction as did his 
first, well-earned trophies. 

We find that throughout the whole of northern Canada, except per- 
haps in Yukon Territory, the .30-30 Winchester is the most popular 
rifle, and is almost always seen in carbine form. There are several 
reasons for this. The rifle and cartridges are the cheapest of the high- 
power variety. Almost all dealers carry them in stock. In the far 
north the Hudson Bay Company and its rival traders handle only this 



KILLING POWER 



373 



rifle and cartridge. The ammunition can be obtained anywhere, 
whereas ammunition for other rifles is extremely hard to get at any 
price. The preference of the carbine is indicative of the power of this 
cartridge. For large game several shots are almost always necessary 
to kill, and a carbine is handier and quicker for rapid fire, particularly 
in brush, than the rifle with longer barrel. 

THE CALCULATION OF ENERGY 

In connection with killing power, the rifleman may wish to calculate 
the energy of a certain cartridge. To calculate the energy of any load 
is very simple. The formula is : 

WV 2 



2g 

in which E equals the energy in foot-pounds, W equals the weight of 
the projectile in pounds, V equals the velocity of the projectile in foot- 
seconds, and G equals the acceleration of gravity or 32.16. 

Example : Given a 200-grain bullet having a muzzle velocity of 2000 
feet per second, to find the muzzle energy, from the above formula 
we have : 



E — 



200 X 2000 X 2000 
7000 X 2 X 32.16 



The 7000 is introduced to reduce the grains weight of the bullet to 
pounds. To work out the above we have : 



2000 
2000 

4000000 
200 

800000000 





000 -7- 450240 = 1776.8 
1776.8 foot-pounds. 


2 




14000 
32.16 




84000 
14000 
28000 
42000 


0000c 
E = 


450240.00 



To simplify this simply multiply the velocity by itself, and then by 
the weight of the bullet, and divide 450240 into the result. For muzzle 
energy use the muzzle velocity, and for energy at any other range use 
the remaining velocity at that range. 



CHAPTER XVI 

ELEVATION 

THE elevation of a rifle is the sight setting required to cause the 
rifle when correctly aimed to shoot very close to a horizontal line 
drawn through the center of the bull's-eye or through the point of aim. 
A rifle is said to hold its elevation well when the vertical dispersion is 
small, and when the sight setting required for a certain range does not 
change appreciably from time to time. 

It is the custom to set the sights of target and miliary rifles so that 
when aimed a slight distance below the bull's-eye the shots will strike 
around the center of the bull's-eye. As the sights are black and the 
bull's-eye is also black, it has been found that in aiming out-of-doors 
in various lights the sights and bull's-eye often blend together, and if 
one tries to aim at the center of the bull's-eye in practice it is not 
possible to see well enough to tell if he is actually aiming at the center, 
the top, or the bottom. But if one aims just below the bull's-eye the 
black sights are silhouetted against the white portion of the target and 
the bull's-eye appears like a black ball balanced just above the center of 
the front sight. In instructing a novice to aim he is told always to see 
the same amount of white target between the top of his front sight and 
the bottom of the bull's-eye in order that his elevation may be constant. 
As one gains more experience, however, he realizes that accurate aim- 
ing consists more in duplicating exactly each time the " picture "of the 
sights and target. The retina of the eye seems soon to acquire a 
memory for this picture and to be able to duplicate it each time with 
surprising accuracy. If the " picture '"' does not look right, the eye at 
once tells the brain, and the aim is corrected. 

With a hunting rifle the best practice is so to sight it for each range 
that the shots will strike close to where the top of the front sight is 
held. This is much more satisfactory for game shooting. Thus with a 
target rifle sighted for, say, 200 yards on an 8-inch bull's-eye, the rifle 
will actually shoot half the diameter of the bull's-eye high (4 inches) 
plus the distance that it is aimed under the bull's-eye (say 3 inches), 
or 7 inches above the point where the top of the front sight is aligned 
on the target. This is correct for 200-yard target shooting, but it is 

374 



ELEVATION 375 

manifestly unsatisfactory for game shooting as one should not be re- 
quired to estimate a certain amount to hold under on a target which 
never looks the same twice. If we sight our hunting rifle to strike 
where the top of the front sight is held at a range of 200 yards, and we 
then use this rifle for target shooting at that range, aiming it below 
the bull's-eye as the target shot does, then the rifle will strike below the 
bull's-eye. As we usually sight our hunting rifles in on a bull's-eye 
target we should take this into consideration, and if we use the target 
shooter's method of aim on this target we should so adjust our sights 
that in aiming in this manner the shots will strike not into the center 
of the bull's-eye, but just below the bottom of the bull's-eye. 

There is no such thing as " point-blank range," for the bullet begins 
to fall to the ground as soon as it leaves the support of the barrel. But 
every rifleman must determine the shortest range to which he wishes 
his rifle sighted. For the military shot this will probably be about 200 
yards, as with a rifle of modern velocity sighted thus if he aims at the 
bottom of an 8-inch bull's-eye, or at the bottom of an enemy's head 
appearing above shelter, he will hit that bull's-eye or head somewhere 
surely anywhere between the muzzle of the rifle and about 225 yards. 
The target shot will of course have his rifle so that the sights can be 
lowered just low enough to hit the bull's-eye with a target held at the 
shortest range at which he will ever want to shoot. The hunter should 
have his sights so set that he can adjust them low enough for what we 
will call the " small-game elevation "'; that is, say, for 15 yards, so that 
he can hold on the head of a grouse or squirrel at this close range and 
be sure of decapitating it. Or perhaps it may be the head of a wood- 
chuck or coyote just showing in the grass a few yards off. Then he 
should also have the sights plainly marked for what we will call the 
" big-game elevation." If we take the vital portion of the body of a big 
game animal to be at least 8 inches in diameter, then this range for 
the big-game elevation should be that at which the rifle, when aimed 
at the center of this 8-inch circle, will shoot neither above or below the 
circle at intermediate ranges. Thus, if the rifle when fired at 200 yards 
has a rise in its trajectory at 100 yards of 4 inches, we can sight it for 
200 yards. It will then strike the center of the bull's-eye at very short 
ranges, and the bullet will then rise gradually in its flight until if the 
game be at 100 yards the bullet will just strike the top of the 8-inch 
circle. At 200 yards the bullet will of course strike center, and at, 
say, 225 yards it will have fallen so that it will strike the bottom of 
the 8-inch circle, the aim in every case being taken at the center of the 



376 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

circle. Thus, with this big-game elevation, this rifle is good for a shot 
in the vitals of a large animal up to 225 yards without its being neces- 
sary to estimate the range at all. Most hunters prefer to leave their 
sights always at this big-game elevation when hunting large game, and, 
if the game appears to be farther off than the big-game elevation, aim 
will be taken higher up on the body of the animal instead of at the 
center of the vital organs. In practice this usually works better than 
trying to estimate the range and set the sights. There is seldom 
time in game shooting to set the sights, and as the ranges in game shoot- 
ing practically never exceed 400 yards this method works very well. 

A rifle should always be sighted in ; that is, targeted, and the sights 
adjusted, by the person who is going to use it. It is a fact that two men 
seldom can use the same sighting with a rifle. A rifle correctly ad- 
justed for a certain man at a certain range will seldom be found exactly 
correct for another man at the same range. So also a rifle which is 
supposed to be correctly adjusted for a certain range at the factory will 
seldom be found to be correct for the purchaser. This is chiefly due to 
the differences in aiming and holding the rifle between different men, 
also to different conditions pertaining between the time that one man 
adjusts the rifle for himself and when the other man uses it. Thus one 
rifleman may take a rifle and adjust the sights absolutely correct for 
himself for 200 yards, and then hand it to another to try. The second 
man may find that it shoots as much as 8 inches off the mark when he 
aims in his normal manner. It is therefore evident that every man 
should sight his own rifle, and not leave it to some one else or the 
factory to do. 

It is very easy slightly to injure a rifle so as to change its sighting 
considerably. Particularly the rifle should never be allowed to fall, 
as either the sights may be knocked out of alignment or the barrel may 
even be bent. The muzzle of the rifle should be guarded carefully 
against injury, and also precautions should be taken to see that it re- 
ceives no wear from the cleaning rod in the process of cleaning. If 
the sharp corners of the lands and grooves are worn or deformed at the 
muzzle, there will be a considerable change in the sighting of the 
rifle. A worn or deformed muzzle does not necessarily mean a loss 
of accuracy, but it does mean that a rifle will shoot a considerable dis- 
tance from its normal sighting. 

A rifle will require a very slight change in elevation from time to 
time. When it is new it changes a little during the first 100 shots or 
so when the bore is losing the polish of the tools with which it was 



ELEVATION 377 

made, and taking on the polish it receives from the bullets passing 
through it. Also during this period the barrel is being pounded down 
to a set position in its stock. It is very necessary to see that the screws 
which secure the stock to the action are always kept screwed up as 
tight as possible. If these become loose the rifle will shoot very rag- 
gedly. Also in the case of a military rifle, which has a long forearm 
extending up almost to the muzzle, it is absolutely necessary to see that 
the wood under the bands which secure the forearm to the barrel does 
not bind and interfere with the expansion of the barrel as it gets hot 
from firing. If the wood binds and interferes with the free expansion 
or lengthening of the barrel, which always occurs when it becomes hot, 
the rifle will shoot very poorly and no accuracy can be expected. This 
must be particularly looked into if the rifle is taken from a dry climate 
into a damp one, as the wood of the forearm will always swell greatly. 

The accumulation of metal fouling in the bore from firing will often 
cause a change in elevation. With good ammunition and a fairly 
smooth barrel, enough metal fouling will seldom be accumulated in a 
day's shooting to cause trouble, but the rifle should always be treated 
with the ammonia bath at the end of every day's firing. This applies, 
of course, only to rifles of high velocity, using metal-jacketed bullets. 

Other conditions which may influence the elevation from day to day 
are as follows : 

Temperature. On a hot day the rifle will shoot high and will re- 
quire a slightly lower elevation. The reverse pertains on a cold day. 
Ammunition which has been allowed to remain exposed to the sun long 
enough to get very hot will also shoot high. Some powders are con- 
siderably influenced by temperature. Foreign powders are particular 
offenders in this respect. Our own Du Pont powders are influenced 
very slightly if at all by ordinary heating or by extreme cold, and it is 
only when they are allowed to get very hot, as when exposed for a 
long time to powerful sun, that they will cause an appreciable change 
in the velocity of the charge. It has been found that with our .30- 
caliber Model 1906 service ammunition a degree of temperature will 
change the velocity 1.5 seconds. Translating this into elevation we find 
that a 20 degree change in temperature will change the elevation by 
1.093 minutes. The normal elevation is 70 degrees F. Thus if one 
has his sight correctly adjusted for elevation for a certain range for 
70 degrees temperature, and on the day of firing the temperature stands 
at 90 degrees the elevation should be decreased about 1 minute of 
angle. 



378 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Barometer and hygrometer. The density of the air varies with the 
barometer and hygrometer readings. It has been found that the lower 
the barometer and the higher the hygrometer, the higher the rifle will 
shoot, and the less will be the elevation required. We obtain the 
greatest change in barometer when we go from a very high to a low 
elevation, or vice versa, as for example when we take a rifle sighted in 
at sea level to the high mountain country. At high altitudes the rifle 
will shoot higher than it does at the sea level, and this must be taken 
into consideration in some cases where the change is very great. 

As a general rule the changes in elevation caused by differences in 
thermometer, barometer, and hygrometer are so slight that they do not 
have to be taken into consideration, particularly at short ranges. Oc- 
casionally, however, these factors must be watched as they sometimes 
combine in such a way as to make quite a change in elevation necessary, 
as, for example, when we have a very high temperature combined with 
a low barometer and a very strong rear wind, or when we have a high 
temperature at high altitude. The influence of these factors seems to 
be very much less with rifles of very high velocity (over 2500 feet per 
second) than with rifles of low or medium velocity. This is one of 
the advantages which accrue from a very high velocity. 

Mirage. Mirage or heat waves, make the target dance or simmer. 
The atmosphere seems to boil. The target appears blurred and the 
blurred bull's-eye looks larger than when seen in a clear atmosphere. 
In trying to aim at the correct distance below the bull's-eye, the rifle- 
man naturally aims a little lower on the blurred bull, hence when mirage 
is present a slightly greater elevation will be required. Ordinary 
mirage does not displace or " drift " the image of the target. 

Light. Changes in the light make very little difference in the eleva- 
tion, if a peep or aperture sight be used. If the sun be shining brightly 
from high up in the heavens the top of the front sight will be bril- 
liantly lighted, and no matter of what material it is made it will cast a 
slight glimmer. Some sights of course cast more glimmer than others, 
the worst offenders being those with silver beads and bevelled beads. 
The best are the dead black military sights and those ivory bead sights 
which present a perfectly flat, perpendicular surface to the eye. This 
glimmer prevents one from holding as near to the target as he would if 
there were no glimmer and the sights were clearly defined. It is seldom 
that one is conscious of this glimmer with a good front sight, but it is 
always there and causes the effect noted. Therefore, as the front sight 
is not held quite so high the shot will strike lower, and more elevation 



ELEVATION 379 

will be required. Usually, with good sights, this effect is hardly notice- 
able, particularly if one is wearing amber-colored spectacles. With 
dead-black (well-smoked), military sights, using the peep sight, and 
with amber glasses, it appears to cause a change in elevation of just 
about one minute of angle. That is to say, about one more minute 
elevation will be required when there is a bright sun overhead than 
when the front sight is shaded or the day is cloudy. The sun shining 
on the side of the front sight also has a lateral effect of just about the 
same amount. With the military peep sight and sights well blackened 
by smoking with camphor smoke, it has been found that when shooting 
to the north or south in the morning when the sun shines brightly on 
one side of the front sight it illuminates that side and one naturally 
favors that side in aiming, hence the rifle will shoot away from the 
sun, and the difference under these conditions between shooting when 
the sun is shining brightly and when it is covered with a dark cloud is 
just about one minute of angle. As one minute of angle equals I 
inch per 100 yards this would amount to 2 inches at 200 yards. In the 
afternoon when the sun lights up the other side of the front sight it will 
cause just as much of an error in the opposite direction, so that the 
difference between morning and afternoon shooting on a north and 
south range when the sun is shining will be just about 2 minutes of 
angle with dead black front sight and peep rear sight. With the open 
sight light sometimes has considerable effect on the elevation ; but it 
seems to differ with individuals, probably depending upon the strength 
and vision of the eyes. It also follows the principle that the best- 
lighted portion of the sights will be unconsciously favored in aiming, 
and when using the open sight the light has a chance to shine into the 
notch of the rear sight and considerably complicate matters. The light 
will thus affect each individual so differently that it is not possible to 
prescribe any rule, and each rifleman must find out his own personal 
equation as regards light when shooting with open sights. 

Ammunition. Differences in lots of ammunition sometimes make 
considerable change in elevation necessary when changing from one 
lot to another, and particularly when changing from one make to 
another, even when the two makes are practically identical as to bullet 
and powder charge. This is due to several causes, such as difference 
in velocity between lots of the same powder, differences caused in the 
cartridge by different loading machines, difference in the length of time 
that the cartridges have been loaded, etc. Ordinary commercial hunt- 
ing ammunition will show a much greater difference in this respect be- 



380 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

tween lots than does standard military ammunition, as much more pains 
is taken in loading the latter class of ammunition to get uniformity, 
even to blending the powder and making careful velocity tests with 
each lot of powder before determining exactly how much of that lot 
will be loaded in the shell. It is always best, if one wishes uniform re- 
sults, to buy his ammunition in large lots. Ammunition is usually 
packed in boxes of from iooo to 2000 rounds each. If it is not desired 
to buy as much as this at one time, specify that all that one does buy 
shall come from one of these large boxes, and not from two or more, 
as one box is pretty sure to contain only the loading from one machine, 
and one lot of powder on one day, and thus be uniform. Errors from 
this cause are really important as they sometimes amount to as much 
as four or five inches at one hundred yards. 

Winds. Head winds, that is, those blowing from the target towards 
the marksman, retard the bullet and require additional elevation. Rear 
winds require a lower elevation. The effect of these accelerating and 
retarding winds at ranges up to 1000 yards is very small and scarcely 
ever need be taken into account. 

Positions. The position assumed by the rifleman when firing in- 
fluences the elevation considerably. In the military prone position with 
tight gunsling, the rifle shoots lower than when held in any other way, 
but probably shoots more consistently as the military shot, when firing 
prone, learns to hold the rifle exactly the same for every shot, to get 
the same amount of pressure on the sling each time, and always to 
receive the recoil on the shoulder in the same manner. In target shoot- 
ing, however, where one holds the top of the front sight under the 
bull's-eye there is little difference in shooting at a bull's-eye target 
between the elevation required for the prone position and that required 
for offhand or standing shooting, because in the latter position one does 
not hold as steadily, and thus naturally holds a little lower, with a 
little more of the white target showing between the top of his front 
sight and the bottom of the bull's-eye, so that he can get a clearer view 
of the bull's-eye as his sights bob and travel over the face of the target. 
When firing with a sand bag rest or other rest under the barrel of the 
rifle, the rifle shoots high and requires a lower elevation. The reason 
for this is fully explained in the chapter dealing with Zero Elevation, 
Barrel Flip, and Resting the Rifle. 

Condition of bore. If the bore be heavily coated with a thick grease, 
like the gun grease usually sold, or with an oil like thick cylinder oil, 
the first shot will fly high and wild, and it will take several shots to shoot 



ELEVATION 381 

all trace of the oil from the bore and get the rifle shooting with its 
normal elevation. Light oils, like sperm oil or " 3 in 1," do not have 
this effect, and if the bore be free from heavy oil the point of impact 
of the first shot from a clean, slightly oily bore and the succeeding 
shots will be practically the same. This is not true with .22-caliber 
rifles and those using black powder, as in such cases the first shot from 
a clean bore will strike the target slightly higher than the succeeding 
shots. Sometimes a rifle using jacketed bullets and having a very high 
velocity will pick up enough metal fouling during a score to cause a 
change in the elevation, but this is practically never the case unless the 
bore has been so neglected as to become very rough and pitted. 

When reading the above over the rifleman must not get the idea 
that it is necessary to take all these matters into consideration when 
about to fire a score at the target. As a general rule elevation is in- 
fluenced very little in the numerous ways just cited, because a change 
in one condition is usually offset by a change in some other condition, 
and with a good rifle, good sights, and uniform holding and aiming on 
the part of the rifleman there will be very little difference in the eleva- 
tion from day to day, scarcely enough ever to be taken into considera- 
tion from a practical point of view. 

The average elevation necessary at a given range in good weather 
conditions is called the " normal elevation " for that range. The nor- 
mal elevation should always be used for the first shot, unless the con- 
ditions clearly indicate that a change is advisable. 



CHAPTER XVII 
ACCURACY 

ACCURACY, in a rifle, may be defined as that quality which will 
permit one to fire a number of consecutive shots at a given range 
into a small circle or group, and also that quality, which on a succeeding 
attempt, all conditions being the same as the first attempt, permits a 
practical duplication of results. In other words a rifle, to be called 
accurate, should deliver a series of consecutive shots, fired with the 
same aim, into a small group ; and it should be possible at any time 
(sight adjustment, range, and weather conditions being equal) to 
duplicate the result of the first group both as to size and point of 
impact. 

As to the size of the group that a rifle should make at various ranges 
to be considered accurate, I cannot do better than quote the " British 
Text Book of Small Arms" (official publication) in this respect: 
" The group of shots made by a good rifle is approximately circular, and 
at short ranges all the shots should be contained in a circle subtending 
about 3 minutes at the muzzle, the bulk of them being well in the middle 
of it." Since i minute subtends practically i inch at ioo yards, this 
gives us a 3-inch circle at 100 yards, a 6-inch circle at 200 yards, a 
9-inch circle at 300 yards, a 15-inch circle at 500 yards, etc., as being 
the size which the group should not exceed at the various ranges to 
entitle, the weapon and ammunition to be classed as accurate. 

Not all rifles are designed to shoot accurately to as long a range as 
500 yards. In fact a large number of sporting rifles are not designed 
to be accurate beyond 150 yards. Thus a .401 auto-loading rifle may 
be classed as accurate because on testing it is found that it will group 
its shots consistently within a 2^-inch circle at 100 yards, whereas if 
this rifle were tried at 200 yards it might take a 25 -inch circle to hold 
its shots, and at still longer ranges its shots might fly all over the land- 
scape. The novice is apt to expect too much from a rifle, and it is as 
unfair to expect a short-range weapon to perform well at long ranges 
as it would be to expect a shotgun to do good execution at 100 yards. 

Accuracy is the most important quality in a rifle. If the rifle is 
inaccurate, it is worthless. It must certainly be as accurate as the 

382 



ACCURACY 



383 



marksman can hold and aim, as he will never be content with a weapon 
which in itself limits his skill. A trained marksman can hold for a 
6-inch group or slightly better at 200 yards, and if his rifle will not 
give him this he determines that it is inaccurate and discards it. 

It is not always fair to condemn a rifle as inaccurate because on trial 




Fig. 86 
Mann chronograph on Dr. Mann's first testing range 

it fails to come up to the above requirements. Accuracy depends not 
only on the rifle but on the ammunition as well, and many an accurate 
rifle has been condemned simply because of poor ammunition. More- 
over, it may be remarked that very few riflemen are capable of testing 
a rifle for accuracy. In fact I may state that it is my belief that there 
are not a hundred riflemen in the United States capable of making a 
reliable accuracy test of a rifle without resorting to a machine rest. 

Accuracy in rifle and ammunition depend on a great many factors, 
and it is my purpose in this chapter to consider the most important of 
these factors. To approach the subject understanding^ we must have 
a little knowledge as to the flight of the bullet. 



384 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

PERFECTION IMPOSSIBLE 

If a perfect bullet be delivered from the muzzle of the rifle without 
mutilation, and with a rotation or spin imparted to it by the rifling 
sufficient to maintain its gyrostatic stability, that bullet (neglecting 
wind and atmospheric deflections) will fly perfectly to the target 
through its path of trajectory; and a series of such perfect bullets, 
perfectly delivered, would fly exactly the same, perfect accuracy would 
result, and the bullets would all strike the same point on the target. 

Perfect accuracy is, however, unattainable, as it is practically im- 
possible to produce a perfect bullet, and still more impossible to fire such 
a bullet from a rifle without causing to it a certain mutilation or de- 
formity. Deformities occurring to bullets during manufacture, or 
upon firing in a rifle, may be divided into three classes : imperfection of 
form, imperfection of balance, and inequality in weight. In form a 
bullet may not be round, its point may not be perfect, or its base may 
be oblique — that is, not at right angles to its longer axis. Due to 
bubbles in its lead core, variation in thickness of jacket, or some lack 
of homogeneity in the metal entering into its construction, it may be 
unbalanced — that is, its center of gravity will not coincide with its 
center of form. 

It is not necessary for the purpose of this discussion to go into an 
explanation of, or even to enumerate all, the various motions which a 
bullet may go through in its flight through the air. To do so would 
require several hundred pages, and it is doubtful if the layman, for 
whom this book is written, would be able to understand half of it. 
Instead, it will suffice to see what happens to a bullet with an oblique 
base, and to an unbalanced bullet, when fired from a good rifle. 

THE NORMAL GROUP 

We must first have some standard of comparison. Let us say that 
we are firing with a very accurate rifle from rest at 100 yards. As 
we produce group after group, gradually they attain certain semblance 
to each other which we can recognize. Each of the ten-shot groups 
can be enclosed in a circle of about the same size, say 2.50 inches. 
Moreover, we see that if we eliminate about two of the wildest shots 
from each group, the groups could be contained in circles about 1.25 
inches in diameter. Hence we get to wondering what causes these 
two off-shots in every ten. If they could be eliminated the accuracy 
of our rifle would be doubled. In order to have something with which 



ACCURACY 385 

to compare the amount of deviation of these off shots, we get to calling 
the group that our rifle makes minus these shots (the eight-shot group) 
the " normal group," both as to its size and as to the location of its 
point of impact relative to the sighting. Thus it will be understood 
what we mean when we say a bullet strikes so far from normal. 

THE TIPPING BULLET 

Let us say that we fire from a good rifle barrel a bullet which has had 
the base made purposely oblique by shaving a small piece off of one 
side of the base. This bullet, as it leaves the muzzle, instead of 
gradually merging from the line of axis of bore into the path of the 




Fig. 87 
Dr. Mann's 200-yard covered rifle range 

trajectory as a normal bullet would, departs from the bore at a tangent 
to the line of fire. It " tips " as soon as it leaves the muzzle, or very 
shortly thereafter. As its base leaves the muzzle, one side leaves be- 
fore the other, the powder gas rushes out from behind the bullet on the 
short side first, the long side still retaining contact and friction with the 
bore, and consequently causing a tip to its longer side, and the bullet 
continues to fly at a tangent to the line it formerly started on through 
the axis of the bore. The bullet now flies on this new tangent straight 
towards the target, so that we will say it hits the target 5 inches to the 
right of the normal group. Now if we were to place a screen just 
half w r ay between the target and the rifle, mark thereon where the 
normal group would pass through this screen, and fire through it with 
our oblique base bullet we would find that it would print just half of 






386 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

five inches to the right of the normal group, or 2V2 inches, thus showing 
that the bullet travels in a straight line from muzzle to target, only 
this straight line is a tangent to the straight line which normal bullets 
take. If we fire two oblique-base bullets, equal as to their obliquity, 
but introduce them into the rifle so that one emerges with its cut at 
an angle of 180 degrees from the other (say one emerges from the 
muzzle with the cut up, and the other with the cut down), then these 
two bullets will be almost equally distant from the normal group, but 
on opposite sides from each other. One may be five inches to the right 
of the group, and the other five inches to the left of the group. 

Since our bullet has been deflected from the line of fire, the line in 
which it attained its rotation of spin, it follows that it will be forced 
to gyrate and oscillate instead of flying at all times point true to the 
line of fire. If we place a series of paper screens at various points 
between the muzzle and the target on which the bullet can leave its 
print we will see that it passes through some screens tipping slightly 
in one direction, through others slightly in another direction, and 
through some practically point on. If these screens be placed fre- 
quently enough, and at regular intervals, we can trace the whole move- 
ment of the bullet, can see it take its first tip shortly after leaving the 
muzzle, can see it make its first gyration, and can measure the distance 
it has to fly to complete one gyration. Of course it requires a con- 
siderable mutilation to the base of the bullet to cause a deflection from 
normal of 5 inches at 100 yards, but an intentional shave to the side 
of the base with a pen knife will easily do it, and perhaps much more. 
A small obliquity to the base which could not be measured by the eye, 
either existing in the bullet before it was fired, or being caused in the 
barrel during explosion, would easily cause an off-shot of an inch or 
so at 100 yards, and two of these, emerging in opposite directions, 
would of course cause an increase in the size of the group of 2 inches. 
In this explanation the oblique base bullet only has been considered, 
and the fact that an oblique base bullet is always of necessity an un- 
balanced bullet has been disregarded. 

THE UNBALANCED BULLET 

An unbalanced bullet, as we have seen, is one in which the center of 
gravity does not conform to the center of form, hence the center of 
gravity does not lie in the line of axis of bore (line of fire). The bullet 
may be unbalanced before loading, or it may become unbalanced before 
it reaches the muzzle. This causes the center of gravity of the bullet 



ACCURACY 



387 



to fly in a spiral around the axis of the bore, and to describe a circle 
around the center of the bullet's form as the bullet passes through the 
bore of the rifle. When the bullet is released at the muzzle it no longer 
is forced to keep its bore spiral, and it takes a straight course which can 
only be a tangent to that spiral. This can be illustrated by swinging 
a weight attached to a string in a circle ; as soon as the weight is re- 
leased by letting go the string it flies at a tangent to the circle it has 
been describing. This illustration of course greatly exaggerates. If 
the center of gravity be off the center of form by .001 inch, and the 
twist of rifling has a pitch of one turn in ten inches, then the bore 




Fig. 88 

Dr. Mann's 200-yard covered range tinder construction, showing "V" rest and 

base already in position 

spiral has a pitch of ten inches and a diameter of .002 inch, and the 
tangent may cause a deflection of an inch or two at 100 yards. Since 
the bullet is no longer flying in the line of fire, it must gyrate just as 
in the first instance. 

It will be seen from the above that we have two causes for off shots, 
the oblique base bullet, and the unbalanced bullet, and these two errors 
are usually present at the same time. If, for discussion, we consider 
that each error is going to cause the same deflection at the target, it is 
clear that these two deflections may be added to each other thus causing 
twice the error, or they may exactly balance each other, thus causing 
the bullet to print in the normal group. Both errors may thus cause, 
on one shot, a deflection to the right of 1 inch, and the bullet prints 2 



388 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

inches to the right of normal. Next shot they may exactly balance each 
other and a normal print results. The third shot they may both cause 
an upward deflection and a shot two inches above normal results, so 
that the final result is a four inch group where the normal group is i .25 
inches. Thus we will see the necessity for eliminating these off-shots 
if we are to improve the accuracy of the rifle. 

IMPERFECTIONS IN BULLET MANUFACTURE 

We have seen that a bullet is deformed either before or in the act 
of firing. If deformed before firing, it may be deformed either in the 
process of manufacture or by injury after manufacture and before 
loading. This latter is due to carelessness and will not be discussed. 
A few years ago bullets were made almost universally of an alloy of 
lead and tin, varying from 1 part by weight of tin to 16 parts of lead, to 
1 part tin to 60 parts of lead. There was considerable chance for im- 
perfection in such bullets. They were liable to bruises either in manu- 
facture or in handling after manufacture, and occasionally small bubbles 
would be present in the interior of the core which would unbalance them 
badly. But today bullets are almost invariably jacketed with copper 
or cupro-nickel, and the process of manufacture has been so much 
improved, and they are so well protected by the jacket, that the im- 
perfections are very few and minute. In my experiments during recent 
years I have almost invariably been able to get groups from jacketed 
bullets about twice as small as I have been able to obtain in the same 
cartridge from lead and tin bullets. Given a good rifle and ammuni- 
tion well designed for accuracy, it is my opinion that the modern 
jacketed bullet, when it is not deformed in the rifle, will shoot steadily 
into a small normal group. The spreading of this normal group, say 
1.25 inches at 100 yards, is due to the small, ineradicable deformities 
in the bullet, and the off-shots are due to the further deforming of the 
bullet by the rifle during firing. 

With even the best barrels of ordinary manufacture there is an 
average spreading of groups in the finest target work, averaging two 
and a half to three inches at 100 yards, not including fortunate groups, 
or those from special rifles which will be discussed later. These large 
groups occur in spite of perfect weather conditions, they show up 
when powder charges are most carefully weighed and every precaution 
taken, they show up with rests and telescope sights, and when the rifle 
is cleaned after every shot or shot dirty, when the bullet, is seated in 
the shell or in the barrel ahead of the shell. These groups almost in- 



ACCURACY 



389 







o 




Fig. 89 

Groups showing what accuracy a good commercial American rifle and am- 
munition are capable of. Shot with a .30-40 Winchester single shot rifle 
equipped with Winchester telescope sight and flred from muzzle and elbow rest. 
Groups are reproduced exact size. 

No. 1. 10 shots, 50 yards, 'Rem.-U. M. C, 220 grain soft point. Best group. 

No. 2. 10 shots, 50 yards, Peters 220 grain soft point. An average group. 

No. 3. Heavy circles. 10 shots, 100 yards, Rem.-U. M. C. 220 grain soft point. 
Best group. 

No. 3. Light circles. 10 shots, 100 yards, W. R. A. Co., 220 grain soft point. 
An average group. 

variably show 80 per cent, of the group in a small " normal group," 
and the other 20 per cent, of the shots " off-shots " which about double 
the size of the group. Thus we are again brought face to face with the 
fact that if we are to increase the accuracy we must discover the cause 
for these mutilations of the bullet by the rifle. In any group 80 to 90 
per cent, of the spreading is due to bullet deformation, either before 
or during firing, and the other 10 or 20 per cent, is due to trajectory, 



39Q THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

and this latter small error must always be present, since it is against 
all probability that any ammunition can throw every shot with abso- 
lutely tbe same velocity. The powder charge and the perfection and 
speed of ignition by the primer are bound to vary slightly. 

IRREGULARITIES IN BORE 

We must now inquire into what occurs to the bullet when it is fired 
in the rifle, from the time it is seated in the chamber until it leaves the 
muzzle of the rifle, and in this connection we must consider the bore 
of the rifle. It is not an easy matter to bore a rifle absolutely straight. 
To do so requires considerable time and much hand labor of the most 
skilled kind. This is not attempted by any of the large rifle factories. 
They try so to perfect their methods of manufacture at high speed by 
machinery as to insure getting the bores almost straight, and they 
succeed very well in doing so, only slightly missing perfection. The 
barrel, after being smooth bored as straight as possible, is then straight- 
ened. This is done by a workman called a barrel straightener. He 
holds the barrel up towards the light, and by looking through it at a 
line against the light, certain shadows are seen in the bore. By these 
shadows he determines whether the bore is straight or not, and if 
crooked he tells where the imperfection occurs. He then proceeds to 
straighten the bore by striking it blows with a lead hammer until the 
shadows indicate that it is straight. There is a great deal of guess 
work about this. In fact the modern expert in rifle construction is 
fast getting to believe that it is all guess work, and had much better be 
left undone. A straightened barrel is liable, after being finished, and 
during the firing and consequent heating up, to go back to its former 
crooked state, and of course to alter its shooting. In my own experi- 
ence I have had barrels which have done this. I had one .30-caliber 
government barrel which shot very w T ell indeed for about 600 rounds, 
then it suddenly changed its zero about half a point (2 inches at 100 
yards) and for a couple of hundred rounds it kept constantly varying 
from its old to its new zero so that I could never tell in advance just 
where it was going to place its group. Finally it gradually retained 
its new zero. It is the present opinion among rifle shots that slight 
imperfections in straightness will not hurt the shooting of a rifle to a 
serious degree, except that a crooked barrel will have a shorter ac- 
curacy life than a straight barrel, and in consequence many manu- 
facturers have ceased to straighten their barrels, preferring to leave 
those barrels that are not perfectly straight in that conditon. Bar- 



ACCURACY 391 

rels that have been straightened often develop another very undesir- 
able trait. They are liable to throw their shots farther and farther 
off in some direction as they grow warm from firing. I once had a 
Krag .30-caliber rifle which required that the elevation be dropped 
two minutes after every shot in order to keep it shooting into the 
bull's-eye at 1000 yards. 

The bore should be absolutely uniform in caliber from breech to 
muzzle. Particularly there should be no tight or loose places in the 
bore. A very slight and gradual tightening of the bore from breech to 
muzzle will do no harm, but it is also no advantage with jacketed bullets, 
although this form of bore is a part of the Pope muzzle-loading rifle 
and necessary with that system. 



Fig. 90 

Single shot bolt action rifle, .25 caliber, velocity 3,400 feet per second, 2oa-yard 
trajectory 1.60 inches, bullet weight 104 grains, made by A. O. Neidner 

After the barrel is smooth bored, it must then be rifled. This oper- 
ation must be well done, leaving a smooth, perfect cut, with no rough 
places. Otherwise the barrel is very likely to pick up lumps of foul- 
ing from the bullet, thus both deforming that bullet and the bullet 
that follows, and making the bore very difficult to clean. One of our 
barrel makers (Pope), before rifling his barrels, goes over it with a 
fine cutter and polishing tool giving to them the same motion and twist 
that he will afterwards give with the rifling machine. He thus polishes 
them in exact line and twist with the subsequent rifling, insuring par- 
ticularly that there shall be no tool marks in the bore at right angles 
to the bullet. Such a barrel shoots beautifully and is extremely easy 
to clean, as practically no fouling adheres to the bore. 

SIZE OF BORE 

We must now consider what the size or caliber of the bore should be 
in relation to the diameter of the bullet. A rifle barrel has two 
diameters : the diameter of the smooth bore before it is rifled, which in 
a finished barrel will be the diameter from the top of one land to the 
top of the opposite land, called " bore diameter " or " land diameter " ; 
and the " groove diameter," being the diameter from the bottom of 



392 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



one groove to the bottom of the opposite groove. Thus a .30-caliber 
rifle is usually smooth bored .300 inch, and then rifled .004 inch deep, 
making its bore diameter .300 inch and its groove diameter .308 inch. 
The groove diameter of the barrel should be exactly the same as the 
largest diameter of the bullet. At least there should not be a differ- 
ence as great as .0002 inch in the diameter of the two. This differs 
considerably from the standard of some manufacturers. Usually they 




Fig. 91 
Bolt used in Neidner single shot, high power, bolt action rifle 

prefer to make their groove diameters about .002 inch larger than the 
bullet, depending upon the bullet to upset and fill the bore. The bullet 
does do this after a fashion, but as we will see later it deforms itself 
in doing it, and right here we find one of the reasons for the off-shot. 
Also, as will be seen later, the jacketed bullet does not upset and fill 
the bore at once, and the large groove diameter and small bullet are a 
fruitful source of gas cutting (usually called erosion), and the life of 
the barrel is thereby shortened. The reasons for making the groove 
diameter slightly larger than the bullet are several. First, the breech 
pressure is lessened ; and second, the allowance automatically takes care 
of rusted and dirty barrels. As regards the first reason it may be said 
that the breech pressure is lessened because some of the powder gas 
escapes ahead of the bullet, thus a loose bullet requires more powder 
than a tight one to produce the same velocity. 

Neither should the groove diameter be less than the size of the 
bullet, as this would mean that the barrel must actually swedge down 



ACCURACY 



393 



the bullet when it is fired, and a deformity would most certainly occur 
in this form of swedge. I have in my possession such a barrel which 
measures .308-inch groove diameter and which fires a bullet measuring 
about .310 inch. It is interesting to note that this barrel scatters its 
shots most awfully the first four or five shots, but that after the barrel 
becomes warmed up it shoots very well, giving about 2.50-inch groups 
at 100 yards. 

We are now able to prescribe certain requisites as regards the bore 
of the rifle which must be followed in order to insure against the bore 
deforming the bullet as it passes through it. The bore and rifling 
should be smooth, the bore should be of uniform diameter, containing 
no tight or loose places, and the groove diameter should be exactly the 
same as the bullet diameter. 1 

THE CHAMBER 

All commercial and military rifles are made with a certain clearance 
or tolerance in the chamber so as to take care of small differences in 
the size of shells and bullets, and also of a certain amount of dirt and 
rust ; it being very desirable that the shell shall be easily inserted in the 
chamber by the breech mechanism without undue force having to be 
used, and also that after having been fired it shall not stick in the 
chamber, but shall be easily extracted without undue force having to be 
applied to the breech mechanism. The .30-caliber United States maga- 
zine rifle, Model 1903, has a clearance of about .003 inch at the neck 
of the chamber to take care of these factors ; that is, to say the diameter 
of the neck of the chamber where the neck of the shell rests is about 
.003 inch larger than the neck of the standard cartridge, and the other 
portions of the chamber are likewise slightly larger than the standard 
shell. I have in my possession three special .30-40 target barrels of 
Winchester make which show a similar clearance of about .002 inch 
at the neck. Some chambers that I have measured show a clearance of 
as much as .005 inch. 

It will be apparent to any one that a cartridge lying in such a cham- 
ber will not lie in the exact center of the chamber, but due to gravity it 
must lie at the bottom of the chamber. The bullet will therefore not be 
in line with the axis of the bore when the explosion of the powder takes 
place. With many chambers the throat of the chamber is so arranged 
that the forward portion or shoulder of the bullet abuts up against the 

1 This applies only to the modern high-power rifle using a jacketed bullet, and 
does not apply to lead-alloy bullets used in high-power rifles, this being a 
special case which is treated elsewhere. 






394 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

throat of the rifling when the cartridge is inserted and the breech 
closed, but this can only help matters a little since the breech of the 
cartridge must still lie in the bottom of the large chamber, and the 
base of the bullet will then be below the axis of the bore, the longer 
axis of the bullet pointing upward. It therefore follows that the bullet 
cannot be in line with the axis of the bore before being fired if the 
chamber be of the commercial variety ; and that the larger the chamber 
relative to the cartridge, the more the bullet will be out of line. In 
this connection it is interesting to note that invariably in my accuracy 
tests of various rifles, other conditions being equal, the tighter chambers 
gave the best groups. 

It will be necessary now to describe what takes place in the chamber 
of the rifle, particularly to the bullet in the chamber, when the rifle is 
fired. We must describe this under two heads, lead bullet and jacketed 
bullet, as the action is very different in each case. 

Take first the case of the lead bullet and black powder. When the 
powder is ignited, the gas strikes the base of the lead bullet a severe 
blow. The lead bullet is at once expanded or upset to fill completely 
the neck of the chamber, the neck of the shell of course conforming. 
The bullet then, at the start, is the size of the neck of the chamber, less 
of course twice the thickness of the metal of the shell at its neck. 
Suppose we are firing a 40-caliber, black powder rifle. The bullet and 
bore both measure .403 inch. The chamber has a clearance of .004 
inch at the neck. On firing, the bullet is then first upset to .407 inch, 
being considerably deformed and very likely made slightly oblique at 
the base ; then the bullet starts forward out of the chamber into the 
bore, and at once it must be s wedged back to .403 inch in the bore, and 
the rifling must cut into the bullet, this giving it a second alteration of 
form and a second chance for deformation. It is then driven through 
the bore and out the muzzle. With black powder and lead bullet rifles 
it will be seen that it makes little difference if the groove diameter of 
the bore is slightly larger than that of the bullet, as the upset of the 
latter will take care of this. Also it will be noticed that the bullet ex- 
pands at once and forms a gas dam, and no gas can escape ahead of the 
bullet. 

Now let us see what takes place with smokeless powder and a jack- 
eted bullet. Here the action is entirely different, owing to the differ- 
ent components. When the cartridge is fired in the chamber the shell 
instantly expands to the full size of the chamber, the bullet on account 
of its tough jacket resisting expansion for the instant. This permits 



ACCURACY 395 

the gas to rush forward around the sides of the bullet, and between 
the bullet and the shell, absolutely preventing the expansion or up- 
settage of the bullet at this point. Some of this gas which rushes up 
between the bullet and shell escapes ahead of the bullet and precedes 
it out the muzzle. This gas rushing past the bullet actually decreases 
the diameter of the bullet by gas cutting (but probably an inappre- 
ciable amount) and it also enlarges or gas cuts the hore slightly for 
that distance ahead of the chamber during which it continues to rush 
past the bullet. This gas cutting of the bore for one shot is inappre- 
ciable, but will probably be large enough to be seen with the eye after 
it has occurred 500 times. The bullet starts forward surrounded with 
gas, and with a steadily increasing gas pressure in its rear. This 
pressure forces it up into the rifling. At its start into the rifling it 
has to be forced by the throat of the chamber into line with the axis 
of the bore, for remember it did not lie in this line before the rifle was 
fired. The bullet starts to wabble up the bore. If the bullet at the 
start is as large as groove diameter, the gas escape past it is quickly cut 
off. If, however, it is smaller than groove diameter, it literally "' wab- 
bles " up the bore, surrounded by gas rushing past it and gas cutting 
both bullet and bore, until such a time as the resistance offered by the 
lands of the rifling, the bullet metal displaced by the lands, and the 
inertia of the bullet itself have caused the bullet to become expanded to 
a gas-tight fit in the bore by the gas pressure in rear. The reader can 
imagine for himself what occurs to the perfect bullet which he started 
with. It certainly is not made more perfect during such contortions. 
Of late years, due to development in the science of photography, 
we have been able to photograph the phenomena occurring at the muz- 
zle of the rifle at the instant of firing. A series of such photographs 
show issuing from the muzzle of the rifle, first, a column of air ; second, 
a considerable amount of powder gas ; third, a decrease in the amount 
of gas followed immediately by the bullet ; and fourth, the main column 
of gas behind the bullet. This shows conclusively that gas escapes 
ahead of the bullet. 

GAS CUTTING OR EROSION 

If we examine the bore of a rifle having a commercial chamber, and 
using high-pressure powder and jacketed bullets, selecting one for this 
purpose that has been fired from 500 to 1000 rounds, we will notice an 
apparent wearing away and rounding off of the lands of the rifling 
at the breech and for quite a little distance up the bore from the breech. 



396 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Not only is the rifling apparently worn, but the whole surface of the 
bore appears to be roughened and cut up. If our rifle is one in which 
the groove diameter is the same as the diameter of the bullet, this gas 
cutting or erosion is not perhaps very bad, and extends but a little 
way up the bore, because the bullet has quickly sealed the bore and 
cut off the rushing gas which does this cutting. But if the barrel is 
larger than the bullet, then we find considerable gas cutting, and we 
also find it extending much farther up the bore than in the first case, 
perhaps six or seven inches, as the loose bullet wabbled a considerable 
distance up the bore before it finally expanded to form a gas dam. 

This erosion or gas cutting will continue in the case of all high- 
power rifles with commercial chamber until it ruins the accuracy of the 
rifle ; that is, until there is no more rifling left at the breech, and the 
bullet has to jump forward quite a distance from the chamber before 
it encounters the rifling. This wearing out through erosion is of course 
gradual, and the barrel may become too inaccurate to satisfy the 
marksman in from 500 to 8000 rounds, depending upon many things; 
the principal factors being the fit of the bullet, the size of the powder 
charge, and the heat developed by the gas of the particular powder 
which is used. A high-power rifle always wears out through this 
erosion or gas cutting, and never from the friction of the jacketed 
bullets, as popularly supposed. After a barrel has been completely 
worn out in this manner, an examination of the rifling at the muzzle 
and for a considerable distance down the bore from the muzzle • 
will show that there has been no wear here, the bore being practically 
perfect. We are of course supposing that the rifle is properly cleaned 
and cared for during use. As a matter of fact almost invariably a 
barrel becomes inaccurate not through wear, but from rust and the 
accumulation of fouling due to lack of proper cleaning and care. 

DEGREE OF ACCURACY 

In order that one may have a proper conception as to how the ac- 
curacy is affected by all these occurrences in the bore, it will be best 
here to give a short summary of accuracy tests with barrels having 
chambers of various degrees of tightness and with bores both the size 
of the bullet and larger than the bullet. Let us take the .30-caliber, 
L T nited States magazine rifle, Model 1903 (New Springfield), for 
example. This rifle has a standard groove diameter of .308 inch, and 
the bullets measure from .308 to .30825. The chamber is cut with an 
allowance of about .003 inch at the neck to take care of large cartridges, 



ACCURACY 



397 



dirt, etc. Very careful and prolonged tests with j;his rifle and good 
ammunition show conclusively that it will average 2.50-inch groups 
at 100 yards and 5-inch groups at 200 yards. Occasionally it will give 
better groups than this, but this is the average. If we were to eliminate 
the off-shots in each group, which aggregate about 20 per cent, of the 
whole number of shots, we would get groups of about 1.50 inches at 
100 yards and 3 inches at 200 yards. Now we will take a rifle very 
similar to this but having a slightly closer chamber, namely rifles with 
special target barrels for the .30-40 and .30 Model 1906 cartridge, made 
to order by the Winchester Repeating Arms Company. These barrels 





/ / © fa® A \ 

1 1 <5L. \ 1 

* ®l® r 





Fig. 92 
Twenty consecutive shots fired at 1.000 yards by the author with U. S. rifle, 
Model of 1903, winning the Adjutant General's match. Rem.-U. M. C. ammuni- 
tion, 172 grain bullet. 

are cut with a slightly tighter chamber than that of the government 
arm, having a clearance at the neck of only about .002 inch, and the 
groove diameter is .308 inch for bullets measuring .308 to .30825 inch. 
Careful accuracy tests with a number of these barrels show that they 
will shoot a little closer than the government barrel for the same 
cartridge, giving groups of about 2 inches at 100 yards and 4.25 inches 
at 200 yards. These are the very best barrels made at the present 
writing by any of the large arms companies. They are made to special 
order only at an extra cost, and are usually fitted to Model 1898 and 
Model 1903 government actions. 

Next, let us look at the various commercial sporting rifles designed 
for hunting or sporting ammunition, selecting those cartridges which, 
from their design, we would expect to be accurate. Such rifles usu- 
ally have a groove diameter from .001 to .002 inch smaller than the 
bullets, and the chamber has an allowance of about .003 inch at the 
neck. Such rifles, if used with good ammunition, will give groups 






398 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

running from 3.00 to 4.00 inches at 100 yards, and from 6.50 to 9.00 
inches at 200 yards. I have made accuracy tests of a certain make of 
a very high velocity rifle of American make which has been extensively 
advertised as giving extremely flat trajectory and fine accuracy. The 
chamber has an allowance of almost .0045 inch at the neck and the 
bullets are .002 inch smaller than groove diameter. A number of 
these barrels tested at 200 yards showed groups running from 8.50 
inches to 14 inches, the average being 12.45 inches. There was no 
semblance of accuracy, nor could a normal group be picked out from 
80 per cent, of the shots. All the shots seemed to be off-shots ; that 
is, all of the bullets had been badly deformed in the barrel. 

VERY TIGHT CHAMBERS 

It would seem from the foregoing that the remedy for the above off- 
shots would be, in addition to seeing that the bore was perfect and the 
same diameter as the bullets, to chamber the barrel as tightly as pos- 
sible. This undoubtedly will help a lot. It is possible to chamber with 
a clearance of only .001 inch and still have enough clearance to take 
care of good factory ammunition and hand-loaded ammunition in 
factory shells, provided the arm is used by a careful and intelligent 
rifleman who keeps chamber and ammunition clean as they should be. 
I have a .25-35 Winchester single-shot rifle chambered in this way to 
special order, and it is an excellent shooting little arm. It gives groups 
at 100 yards averaging 1.75 inches. This is about the best that can 
be obtained from rifles using the ordinary factory shell. The trouble 
which we encounter here is that the factory shell is drawn, and not 
accurately turned. Hence it is not truly round, nor of uniform thick- 
ness throughout its entire diameter. There must be an allowance in 
the chamber to handle such shells, and it can also be clearly seen that 
no matter how true the chamber the bullet can never lie accurately 
in line with the axis of the bore before firing if it is seated in such a 
shell. 

THE MANN-NEIDNER CHAMBER 

The remedy for all this trouble has been most carefully worked out 
by Dr. F. W. Mann assisted by Mr. A. O. Neidner, the expert rifle 
mechanic, and is a result of years of most careful experiment on Dr. 
Mann's private experimental rifle range. Dr. Mann took the ordinary 
commercial shell and proceeded to ream it out at the neck so that it 
should have a perfect cylindrical shape and be a perfect fit for the 
bullet. Then he placed this shell in a lathe and turned it down until 



ACCURACY 399 

it was perfectly round at its neck and had a uniform diameter of metal 
at the neck. The rifle was then most accurately chambered for this 
shell, so as just to take the shell without any allowance other than 
that necessary for insertion and extraction. The chamber is most ac- 
curately cut so that the neck shall be in exact line with the axis of the 
bore, and when the cartridge is inserted and the breech closed the 
bullet lies exactly in line with the axis of the bore. When such a 
cartridge is fired in such a chamber the shell does not expand; it 
cannot, on account of the tight chamber. Neither does the bullet 
upset. The bullet simply moves straight forward in line with the axis' 
of the bore, and enters the rifling perfectly true and with the minimum 
of deformity, hence, practically, we only find those errors at the target 
which are caused by defects in the manufacture of the bullet. In such 
a barrel there is no escape of gas past the bullet because the bullet 
forms a perfect gas-dam all the time. There is consequently no ero- 
sion or gas cutting, and such a rifle has an almost unlimited accuracy 
life. Such barrels with specially selected bullets will give groups 
averaging about 1.25 inches at 100 yards and 2.60 inches at 200 yards. 
They are the equal of the Pope muzzle-loading rifle as regards accuracy, 
with the added advantage of very high velocity. They obtain this 
velocity with very much less powder than the ordinary rifle takes. It 
is hardly believed, however, that a rifle chambered in this way is 
suitable for military work or for rough hunting use. The cartridges 
insert a little stiffly. If the chamber be dirty they are quite difficult to 
insert and they are liable to stick in a dirty chamber. Any slight injury 
to the shell makes it impossible to insert the cartridge in the chamber. 
Hand-loaded ammunition with specially reamed and turned shells must 
of course be used. Such rifles are at their best as target arms, and as 
squirrel and woodchuck rifles. That is, for use under circumstances 
which call for the very best accuracy and which will allow of perfect 
care being taken of the equipment. For rougher work I do not believe 
it is possible to surpass the special match barrels mentioned above, 
which have a clearance of about .002 inch in the neck of the chamber, 
the groove diameter of the bore being the same as the diameter of the 
bullet. I have used such rifles for years in hard wilderness hunting 
with perfect satisfaction. 

INFLUENCE OF THE POWDER CHARGE ON ACCURACY 

A poor powder, or a wrong selection of good powder for a particu- 
lar rifle and charge, may of itself entirely ruin the accuracy. There 



4 oo THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

must be uniformity of burning to give even velocity from shot to shot, 
or the ammunition will be very uneven in its elevations. Uniformity 
of burning depends somewhat on composition of the powder, but more 
on evenness of granulation and character of the grains. Nearly all 
modern powders are excellent in this respect. Uniformity, however, 
is secured only within the range of normal working pressure for each 
powder. For example, a certain powder may burn uniformly only 
when a pressure of from 38,000 to 42,000 pounds per square inch is 
attained. When the normal working pressure is exceeded, or when 
less is developed, the burning becomes erratic and unreliable. 

There must be complete burning of the powder charge, preferably 
just completed in the length of barrel used. Incomplete burning means 
unburnt grains of powder which add to the fouling, and it is also usu- 
ally accompanied by lack in uniformity of pressure and velocity. 
Neither should the powder burn too quickly, as this gives high pres- 
sures, and tends to bullet deformity. Black powder left a heavy 
residue in the bore after firing, and with this powder it was impossible 
to fire many rounds before this residue destroyed the accuracy. In dry 
w r eather, particularly, black powder would cake in a solid, hard mass 
in front of the chamber after from five to ten rounds, and destroy all 
accuracy. It was the custom with black powder to breathe through the 
bore between shots to keep the fouling moist and thus avoid this caking, 
and many riflemen even used special breathing tubes for this purpose. 
Black powder did its best work on moist and damp days, and towards 
evening when the air contained the most moisture. In long-range 
matches the riflemen often cleaned between every shot, pushing through 
the bore first a Fisher bristle brush wet with water, and following with 
a dry flannel patch. 

The fouling of smokeless powder should be as little as possible, and 
should contain no hard lumps that may get into the chamber and pre- 
vent the cartridge seating uniformly, or into the action and prevent the 
proper functioning of the rifle. It is incomplete burning which causes 
such solid residue with modern powders, and here we have the main 
reason for using only a powder which will burn completely. 

The residue of modern powders should be non-corrosive, and easily 
removed as a further element of protection of the bore. In this respect 
the new progressive powders are apparently superior to both the regu- 
lar burning nitrocellulose and the nitroglycerine powders. Nearly all 
modern powders are graphited, with the result that the residue they 
leave in the barrel has a lubricating effect of some value. 



ACCURACY 401 

The matter of the selection of the proper powder to attain accuracy 
and the desired ballistic results is fully discussed in Chapter XII. 

THE CARTRIDGE CONSIDERED 

When dealing with the subject of accuracy we must consider the 
subject of the cartridge most carefully. Accuracy at distances much 
over 100 yards cannot be attained with a short, blunt bullet. To fly 
well to a considerable distance the bullet must either be long and heavy, 
or it must have a " spitzer " point. A spitzer point will allow a slight 
shortening of the bullet and still permit it to maintain its accuracy to 
long range. As a rule, accuracy at ranges over 150 yards cannot be 
relied upon with bullets of less weight than the following: 



Caliber 


Rlunt point 


Spitzer point 


•25 


86 


grains. 


80 grains. 


.28 


120 


grains. 


100 grains. 


•30 


160 


grains. 


140 grains. 


•32 


165 


grains. 


150 grains. 


•35 


200 


grains. 


170 grains. 


.38 


250 


grains. 


220 grains. 


.40 


300 


grains. 


280 grains. 


•45 


350 


grains. 




•50 


450 


grains. 





Bullets intended for use over 500 yards should be at least 10 per 
cent, heavier than the above. The higher the velocity, the longer the 
bullet should be, or the sharper the point in order to maintain accuracy. 
Short, blunt bullets cannot be speeded up very much without ruining 
the accuracy. Thus the .32-20 high-velocity cartridge is very much 
less accurate than the same cartridge with the regular velocity of 1325 
feet per second. 

Keeping the above in consideration and examining the size of the 
chamber and the fit of the bullet to the bore, it is possible to estimate in 
advance just about what accuracy can be obtained from any cartridge 
and rifle, and my own accuracy tests have shown that a calculation 
based on the principles laid down in this chapter will agree with re- 
markable closeness with the results obtained from an actual test. 

DESIGN OF RIFLE 

The design of the rifle has a certain important bearing on the ac- 
curacy. Formerly it was the opinion that a very long barrel contributed 
to accuracy. Such is not the case. There is very little difference 
between the. accuracy of a 20-inch barrel and one of 30 inches in length, 
and there is practically no advantage in having a barrel over 24 inches 



402 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

in length, except that with the longer barrel we always get a slightly 
increased velocity and a slightly longer and more accurate sight radius. 
A heavy barrel is always more accurate than a thin barrel, and par- 
ticularly a barrel having no slots cut in it for sights or forearm 
fastening should be chosen. No real accuracy can be expected from a 
take-down rifle. The grip of the rifle should be heavy and rigid, and 
the action very tightly screwed to the stock. These features and their 
influence on accuracy are considered in detail in the chapter on Zero 
Elevation, Barrel Flip, and Resting the Rifle. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
ACCURACY LIFE AND MOBILUBRICANT 

WE are often asked: "How long will a rifle remain accurate?" 
" How many shots can be fired before a rifle loses its accuracy? " 
A rifle using black powder and lead bullets has a practically unlimited 
accuracy life. I have seen a Pope rifle which had been fired not less 
than 60,000 rounds, and then was still capable of giving 2^-inch groups 
of ten shots at 200 yards. The accuracy life of a high-power rifle de- 
pends upon the chambering, the bullet fit, the heat generated by the 
powder gas, the amount of powder in the charge, and the character of 
the jacket of the bullet, taking for granted, of course, that the bore is 
properly cared for. Very few rifles are worn out through use alone. 
By far the great majority of them become inaccurate from lack of care, 
or lack of proper care. 

A smokeless-powder, high-velocity rifle, when always properly cared 
for, becomes inaccurate through the erosion or gas cutting of the bore 
in front of the chamber. As we have seen in the chapter on Accuracy, 
this is caused by the escape of gas past the bullet in commercial cham- 
bers, and also where the bullet is slightly smaller than the bore. The 
gas rushes past the bullet when the latter is starting from the shell, 
and also in the case of small bullets, when it is passing the first few 
inches up the bore. This gas is intensely hot, and being fired through 
a very small opening, and thus brought into close contact with the steel, 
it cuts like a sharp tool, very little indeed at a time. After from five to 
fifteen hundred rounds have been fired from a high-power rifle with 
fairly loose commercial chamber, a careful examination of the bore 
from the breech will reveal a slight dulling of the lands just in front 
of the chamber, and for perhaps an inch or two up the bore. As the 
firing progresses this wear will become more pronounced, and the bore 
just in front of the chamber will become gradually rough and apparently 
pitted. The worn portion will extend gradually farther up the bore. 
It will extend much farther up the bore in a rifle using small bullets 
than in one which uses bullets which are full groove diameter. We find 
that in rifles having these commercial chambers the erosion or gas 
cutting appears sooner, and pr jgresses faster in rifles which use a large 

403 



404 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

charge of powder, and in rifles using the old nitroglycerine powders 
with their hot gases, than in rifles which use the new pyro-cellulose 
powders which have much cooler gases ; and that the tighter the cham- 
ber the less the gas cutting. We also find that high-power rifles cut 
with the tight, perfect Mann-Neidner chamber do not develop gas 
cutting, as it is impossible for gas to leak past the bullet, and that such 
rifles apparently do not wear out. I have in mind one of these rifles 
shooting a .25-caliber bullet at the extremely high velocity of 3300 feet 
per second, which has been fired 12,000 rounds and no erosion or falling 
off in accuracy can be noticed. 

As this gas cutting progresses, the barrel gradually becomes enlarged 
at the breech until it reaches that point where the bullets begin to jump 
through space after leaving the shell and before they encounter the 
rifling. This of course causes a deformity of the bullet, and as the 
enlarged space grows the deformity grows, until it reaches that point 
where the inaccuracy is such that the marksman can notice it on the 
target. Usually the barrel is discarded at this point as worn out, but if 
the shooting were continued it would be only a question of time before 
the rifle would be entirely inaccurate from this cause. 

I have no data as to the accuracy life of rifles of the .30-30 class 
when used with commercial ammunition and well taken care of. They 
will probably last with accuracy unimpaired for many thousand rounds 
as the charges are comparatively light. Rifles like the .32 Winchester 
special and .35 Remington auto-loading should last for a lifetime as 
the bullets are full groove diameter, the twist of rifling is comparatively 
slow, and the powder charges are light. Coming to the .30-40, we have 
more definite information on this subject, as this cartridge was from 
1892 until about 1906 the standard government cartridge. The stand- 
ard load for this cartridge after the Spanish-American War was 34 
to 35 grains of Laflin and Rand W. A. powder. This was a nitro- 
glycerine powder and had a relatively hot gas compared with the 
modern Du Pont pyro powders. The bullet was full groove diameter. 
The chamber was about .0035 inches larger than the outside diameter 
of the neck of the standard shell. It was found that this rifle could 
be fired from 1000 to 1500 rounds before any falling off in the ac- 
curacy could be noticed by an expert, long-range shot. There is one 
case of excellent accuracy at 1000 yards after 3000 rounds had been 
fired. When the rifle is perfectly taken care of, the accuracy at ranges 
up to 500 yards remains very good up to about 3500 rounds, certainly 
this number could be fired before it would become necessary to discard 



ACCURACY LIFE AND MOBILUBRICANT 405 

this rifle for hunting purposes. Using the new Du Pont military rifle 
powder No. 20 (Pyro) I would expect the accuracy life to be at least 
6000 rounds, shooting with dry bullets as will be explained later. 

Coming now to a much more powerful rifle, and one using only 
nitro-cellulose powder, the .30-caliber Model 1906 cartridge, we find 
that where the rifle is used for slow fire only, that is fired on the 
target range from 10 to 20 rounds at a time, and about a minute in- 
terval between shots, from 2000 to 3000 rounds can be fired before any 
falling off in accuracy would be apparent to a good long-range shot. 
Where, however, much rapid fire is indulged in, with its attendant 
heating of the barrel, the accuracy life will be much shorter than this. 
Rapidity of fire has much to do with speed of progression of the gas 
cutting. One could probably fire this rifle slow fire from 6000 to 7000 
rounds before it became so inaccurate as to be unsuitable for game 
shooting. 

The cause of inaccuracy has not been understood by riflemen until 
recently. Formerly it was thought that the friction of the jacketed 
bullets had much to do with it, but this is almost entirely negatived by 
the fact that when a barrel becomes entirely inaccurate through gas 
cutting at the breech, an examination of the bore at the muzzle and for 
a considerable distance down the bore from the muzzle, will show that 
the rifling is still intact and perfect. If the jacketed bullets caused 
wear, it stands to reason that evidence of this wear would be seen 
throughout the entire bore. When riflemen believed this there was a 
great hunt for a suitable lubricant for the bore and bullet. It does 
seem to be a sort of a mechanical cruelty to shoot a jacketed bullet 
through a steel bore without lubricant. Under the high pressures now 
developed the friction would seem to be enormous. At first no suitable 
lubricants were found. The temperature developed by the gases in 
the barrel is so great that lubricant undergoes chemical disorganization 
— is split up into its constituent elements, carbon and hydrogen. The 
hydrogen, being a gas, escapes, leaving the carbon behind ; and carbon, 
far from being a lubricant, only adds to the fouling of the rifle. 

About 1906 we made the change to the Pyro powder which burns 
with a much cooler gas, and at the same time the growth of the auto- 
mobile industry resulted in the placing on the market of a number of 
thick greases having a very high fire test ; that is, they became chemi- 
cally disorganized at a much higher temperature than the old lubricants. 
It was found that a certain one of these lubricants called Mobilubricant, 
manufactured by the Vacuum Oil Company of Buffalo, New York, 



4 o6 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

apparently worked satisfactorily as a barrel and bullet lubricant, and 
supplied the long- felt want. In practice all portions of the bullet which 
are exposed outside the shell are given a thin, even coating with this 
grease, the bullet inserted in the rifle greased in this manner, and then 
fired. The grease is a thick yellow grease of about the consistency of 
butter at a temperature of 70 degrees. It was found that when the 
rifle was fired with bullets thus greased, it required from one to two 
minutes less elevation at all ranges, in many cases it resulted in better 
accuracy, and the bore did not accumulate metal fouling nearly as fast 
as when the bullets were fired dry. This latter fact made cleaning 
much easier. After extended use for several years it was found that 
the use of this grease on the bullets apparently just about doubled the 
accuracy life of the barrel. The use of Mobilubricant has now be- 
come almost universal among well-uniformed target shots. 

Mobilubricant does not, as is generally believed, act as a true lubri- 
cant in the bore. Instead, its use seems to result in coating the bore 
with a tenacious covering of somewhat the consistency of celluloid. 
This covering apparently gives a smooth surface to the passage of the 
bullets, thus preventing any great accumulation of metal fouling. 
When using this grease it is seldom that we see the small lumps of 
metal fouling adhering to the bore near the muzzle. Instead about all 
that is present is a very thin, even plating of cupro-nickel all over the 
bore, and this plating is easily removed by simply swabbing the bore 
with ammonia on the cleaning patch, thus greatly simplifying the clean- 
ing of the rifle. Also, this celluloid coating seems to reduce the erosion, 
probably by preventing the gases from coming into as close contact 
with the bare steel of the bore. We have long known that grease will 
to a great extent prevent gas from touching metal. A wax wad over 
the powder will effectively prevent the base of a lead bullet being fused 
by the powder gas. It is a fact that the constant use of Mobilubricant 
on the bullets will just about double the accuracy life of the .30-caliber, 
Model 1903 rifle, and similar rifles. I have at present one of these 
rifles with which I have kept a very careful record. It is a most 
accurate piece. It has won two matches for me with scores of 99 and 
98 in 20 shots at 1000 yards, as well as numerous other matches at 
shorter ranges. It has been fired to date 5240 rounds, and the last 12 
shots fired at 600 yards resulted in 12 bull's-eyes. This rifle has never 
had a dry bullet fired through it. All have been greased with Mobi- 
lubricant. Also it has been most carefully cleaned at the end of every 
day's firing with the regular metal fouling ammonia solution. The 



ACCURACY LIFE AND MOBILUBRICAN.T 407 

barrel is still in beautiful condition, and scarcely any gas cutting can 
be seen. I should say that the barrel will be good for several thousand 
rounds more before it becomes inaccurate. 

All the arms companies and powder manufacturers advise against the 
use of Mobilubricant. This is because its use increases the back thrust 
on the breech bolt. Normally, when the rifle is fired, much of the back 
thrust on the head of the shell and face of the breech block or bolt is 
taken up by the friction of the sides of the shell against the sides of 
the chamber. When Mobilubricant is used the chamber and the sides 
of the shell become greased, and as a consequence the shell slides back 
easily under the pressure, and a much greater pressure is exerted 
against the face of the breech. This increase of pressure on the bolt 
head has been estimated to be about 15 per cent., and many people are 
afraid of it. Personally I believe that in all modern arms there is 
plenty of safety margin to take care of this. We find that, where there 
is any damage done to the breech mechanism through slightly exces- 
sive pressures, this damage invariably results from the shell giving 
away, particularly an enlargement of the primer pocket, or the primer 
being punctured or blown out entirely, thus allowing gas to escape to 
the rear. A slight increase in the back thrust on the breech bolt would 
result in a little hammering back, and the rifle might fail, after a time, 
to breech up as closely as when new, but it is extremely unlikely that 
any accident would occur. This failure to breech up tightly would 
be more liable to occur in lever action, and automatic rifles which are 
at present made of slightly softer steel than our bolt-action rifles, and 
I would therefore recommend that Mobilubricant be used only with 
bolt-action rifles, or with the Winchester single-shot rifle, as those 
have not only plenty of extra strength to stand excessive back thrust, 
but there is practically no chance of their gradually failing to breech up 
tightly. In this connection I want to call attention to what might be 
termed abuse of Mobilubricant. I have seen marksmen stick their 
cartridges in the grease so as to cause a large lump, or " gob," of it to 
adhere to the bullet, and also get the shell all greasy. No reliable re- 
sults can be obtained in this way. In fact a largely varying amount of 
Mobilubricant from shot to shot will result in uneven elevation. Each 
bullet should be inserted into the grease almost up to the brass shell, 
and then rotated slightly so that it will acquire a very thin, almost in- 
visible coating of the grease. Care should be taken that no lumps of 
grease adhere to the bullet, and that no grease gets on the shell. In 
this condition the cartridge is placed in the chamber or in the maga- 



4 o8 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

zine of the rifle. There is on the market a little instrument called the 
" Spitzer Greaser," intended for lubricating the bullets of the .30- 
caliber Model 1906 cartridge with Mobilubricant. It consists of a 
small round metal box with cover, somewhat like the round nickel 
boxes that shaving soap comes in. The box is filled with Mobilubri- 
cant, and on top of the grease is placed a steel washer which is just the 
size of the inside of the box. This washer has a hole drilled in the 
middle which is just the diameter of the bullet. To use it the box is 
opened, a cartridge taken in the hand, the end of the bullet inserted in 
the hole in the washer, and pressed downward. The cartridge is given 
a turn or twist and then withdrawn. Only the bullet will pass through 
the hole in the washer and can come into contact with the grease. 
When the cartridge is pressed down, the edge of the shell comes in 
contact with the rim of the hole in the washer and presses the washer 
down. This puts pressure on the grease, and presses the grease into 
contact with the bullet at all points. Thus the bullet gets a thin, even 
coating of grease, and the shell is kept perfectly clean. This Spitzer 
Greaser is a very handy little contrivance. Grease can be carried in it 
in the pocket and cartridges always easily and neatly greased before 
being placed in the magazine or chamber. 

It seems to be best, before starting to fire the rifle, to pass through 
the bore a cleaning patch very slightly greased with Mobilubricant, so 
as to give the bore a very slight, but even, coating of Mobilubricant 
before the first shot. I would expect Mobilubricant to fail in the ex- 
treme cold of arctic regions on account of the grease freezing. 

With some military rifle shots who shoot practically every day 
throughout the whole summer it has become the custom to use Mobi- 
lubricant and never clean the rifle during the entire season. At the 
end of a day's shooting a patch coated with Mobilubricant is pushed 
through the bore once and the rifle set aside. In the morning before 
shooting a clean, dry patch is pushed once through the bore before 
shooting. The bore receives no other attention whatever the. entire 
season. Treated in this way a rifle shoots very uniformly, and excel- 
lent results are obtained wider these conditions. It must be remem- 
bered, however, that the rifle is fired every day except Sundays, and as 
heat kills rust, the rust in the bore is killed each day. Also the rifle- 
man sacrifices a barrel each season, for at the end of the season when 
the barrel is thoroughly cleaned after being fired in this way, it will be 
found to be completely ruined. This system will not work at all when 
the rifle is only fired occasionally, say once a week or once a month, 



ACCURACY LIFE AND MOBILUBRICANT 409 

or at odd intervals as the hunter fires his rifle. Such lack of cleaning 
imder these circumstances would soon result in a ruined rifle. I be- 
lieve that the best practice is thoroughly to clean the rifle every evening 
after firing, with ammonia in the regular manner, and always to use 
Mobilubricant on every bullet, greasing the bullets uniformly with the 
Spitzer Greaser. I have had excellent results with this method. 

Appended below I give a synopsis of the results of a test conducted 
by the United States Marine Corps with a view to determining the 
results of using Mobilubricant and not cleaning the rifle during the 
season's firing. 

MARINE CORPS EXPERIMENTS WITH MOBILUBRICANT 
Conducted by Capt. D. C. McDougal, Marine Corps. 

Four rifles were used, two of them being shot dry, and two with 
grease. Rifles fired from machine rest at 600 yards, 30 shots on each 
target. On 2 machine rests a dry gun and a greased gun were sighted 
in, and when ready both w r ere fired as rapidly as possible until the 30 
shots had been fired from each. The rifles were then taken out of 
the machine rests, the targets changed, old targets measured, and the 
next pair of rifles similarly shot. The dry rifles were cleaned with 
ammonia carefully after each test, but the greased rifles were left ab- 
solutely uncleaned throughout the tests. 

For the first 400 rounds the dry rifles gave groups much better than 
the greased rifles, and had the tests been concluded at this point the 
conclusion would have been reached that the greased rifles did not 
compare favorably with the dry rifles that were cleaned after every 
35 rounds, about. 

However, at a point somewhere after 400 rounds the greased rifle 
groups which had been improving all the time, began to be smaller 
than the groups given by the dry rifles, and from this point on, in 
nearly every instance, the greased rifles gave better groups than the 
dry rifles, the dry rifles showing a tendency to make larger groups as 
the test continued. The rifles were calibrated after 500 rounds had 
been fired, the two dry rifles showing a tendency to bell at the muzzle. 
The greased rifles showed a smaller calibration than when the test com- 
menced, both calibrating nearly .304 inch, showing that the grease and 
residue had formed a hard, smooth, somewhat elastic lining, which was 
evenly distributed over the surface of the bore. Neither of these rifles 
had been cleaned in any manner, and while they showed a slight rusting 
after a damp night, the groups would be just as uniform at the begin- 
ning of a day's firing as at the end. 



410 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

After a thousand rounds had been fired the dry rifles were found 
to be very badly belled, and a little gas cutting could be seen at the 
breech end. There was a tight spot about ten inches from the muzzle 
in each. The greased rifles had decreased in bore to .303 inch, but a 
second calibrating bullet being pushed through showed a slight increase 
to .304 inch. 

The test was continued from there on until 3300 rounds had been 
fired, when the dry rifles were found to be making such large groups 
that the test for these two rifles was discontinued. The groups were 
so large and scattered that it was difficult to prevent losing one or two 
shots off the target unless the rifles were carefully sighted in to get the 
center of the shot group exactly in the center of the target. 

The greased guns at this stage showed up as well, if not better, than 
at any point in the test, and it was decided then to carry on the test 
until the rifles using grease showed targets of the same size and pat- 
terns as the dry rifles had in 3300 rounds. 

One rifle was cleaned, and a few groups were made with it cleaned, 
" doping " with ammonia after each group to see the effect that clean- 
ing would have on a rifle after firing this number of rounds with 
grease. The groups given by this rifle were considerably larger than 
those which it gave before cleaning, so much so as to show conclusively 
that its value as to accuracy had been ruined by the cleaning. Two 
hundred rounds were then fired out of this rifle with grease as rapidly 
as possible, no measurements being taken, and then a series of targets 
were made to see if the rifle had regained any of its accuracy. These 
groups showed that the Mobilubricant did bring the rifle back and in- 
crease its accuracy, but it was never quite as good as it had been before 
it was cleaned. 

Firing was continued with the rifle using grease that had not been 
cleaned and the groups were constant and uniform until 7000 rounds 
had been fired. The groups then commenced to show an increase in 
size, which continued until after 7700 rounds had been fired, when the 
groups became of about the same size and pattern as the dry rifles had 
shown after 3300 rounds had been fired from them. The test was 
here concluded. 

Please notice that in this test each rifle was fired thirty rounds at 
each target, these thirty rounds being fired as rapidly as possible. The 
barrels thus became very hot indeed, much hotter than they ever do in 
ordinary use. 



CHAPTER XIX 
ZERO ELEVATION, BARREL FLIP, AND RESTING THE RIFLE 

BECAUSE a certain load in a certain rifle strikes higher on the 
target than some other load in the same rifle, the range and sight 
adjustment being the same, is no reason for the positive assertion that 
the former load is more powerful or has a flatter trajectory than the 
latter. In order to compare correctly elevations, trajectories, and 
points of impact, it is necessary to have a zero elevation for each load 
to work from. This zero is the base from which we must measure in 
each case. It would seem at first glance that the prolongation of the 
axis of the bore would give such a zero, but this is not the case. A 
bullet does not leave the bore in prolongation of the axis of the bore 
as that bore appears, or is located while at rest, but as the bore is 
located when the bullet leaves the muzzle. The point of impact on 
the target alone is no indication of either the velocity or the trajectory. 

When the rifle is fired the disturbing influence is the recoil. The 
action of the recoil is straight back in line with the barrel, but the re- 
sistance is always below the line of the barrel ; that is, the center of 
gravity of the rifle and the resistance of the shoulder applied to the 
butt plate. When the recoil comes, this low resistance causes the 
whole gun to try to revolve around the center of resistance. This 
sudden pressure bends the rifle into a curve, with the center below 
the barrel, and causes the muzzle to dip, and the breech to rise out of 
the line of the axis of the bore as that axis was before the ignition of 
the powder took place. The high-power rifle with light barrel, there- 
fore, shoots lower at all ranges than a line in prolongation of the axis 
of the bore. 

Bore sighting experiments : 

With a Winchester single shot rifle, caliber .30-40 United States 
(Krag) with 27-inch heavy No. 3 barrel. The telescope sight mounted 
on top of the barrel was correctly adjusted for 100 yards for the regu- 
lar .30-40-220 soft-point, Winchester, high-power ammunition. The 
rifle was then clamped in a heavy vise and the telescope sighted on a 
target 100 yards away. A sight was also taken at the target through 
the bore, and it was seen that the sight on the target through the bore 

411 



4 i2 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

struck the target 5 inches above the point on which the cross-hairs of 
the telescope were aligned. 

With another Winchester single-shot rifle, also with No. 3 barrel, 
using a .25-35 W. C. F. shell and a charge consisting of 22 grains of 
Du Pont military rifle powder No. 20, and an 86-gram, soft-point 
jacketed bullet, the difference between the bore sighting and the cor- 
rect elevation on the telescope sight, at 100 yards, was &/z inches. 

With a United States Model 1903, sporting rifle, using the 191 1 
Winchester National Match ammunition, the rifle being equipped with 
the Lyman No. 48 rear sight, the difference was apparently only about 
an inch. (We should, however, expect, and usually would get, a 
greater difference with a thin barrel like this than with the stiff heavy 
barrels used in the first two experiments.) 

If the barrel be rested on any substance near the muzzle, the down- 
ward dip of the muzzle will be restricted, and the rifle will shoot higher 
than it did, say, when fired off hand. The harder this rest, and the 
rearer it is to the muzzle, the higher will the rifle shoot, but it will 
practically always shoot (that is, the bullet will depart from the muz- 
zle) on a line or tangent below the prolongation of the axis of the 
bore at rest. When a military gunsling is used in the prone position 
the rifle rests in the hand, and the sling pulls down very hard on the 
barrel a few inches in front of the hand. This helps to increase the 
bend of the rifle in a curve with the center below the barrel, and causes 
the shot from the rifle held in the prone position with sling to hit lower 
on the target than when the rifle is fired off hand or rested. We will 
call the off-hand elevation the normal elevation for a sporting arm. 
Such an arm will then require a higher elevation for shooting in the 
prone position with gunsling, and a lower elevation when shooting with 
a muzzle rest. This will be shown in the following experiments : 

EXPERIMENTS IN RESTING A RIFLE 

Two rifles were used. Both were of .30-40 United States (Krag) 
caliber, and the ammunition used was the soft-point, factory ammu- 
nition with the 220-grain bullet manufactured by the Winchester Re- 
peating Army Company and purchased in January, 1914. The bullets 
were greased with Mobilubricant, fouling shots were fired before start- 
ing the tests, and the rifles were not cleaned throughout. The range 
was 100 yards. 

The first rifle, which I will hereafter refer to as the " heavy barrel," 



ZERO ELEVATION, BARREL FLIP, RESTING RIFLE 413 

was a Winchester single-shot rifle with a 27-inch No. 3, round barrel ; 
and was sighted with a Winchester A5 telescope sight. The second 
rifle, referred to as the " light barrel," was a United States Model 1898 
(Krag), with a 26-inch Winchester barrel of the same shape and 
weight as the regular barrel furnished on the Winchester Model 1895 
rifle, except that it did not have any sight slots, or firearm stud slots 
cut in it. The sights on the second rifle were a gold bead front sight 
blackened with camphor smoke, and a Lyman No. 48 rear sight. The 
two rifles used the same ammunition, and were practically identical 
except as to weight of barrel, and length and drop of stock. The light 
barrel rifle had a stock, the drop at the heel, and the length of which, 
were both 1 inch more than in the case of the heavy barrel rifle. 

The muzzle rest in the case of both rifles was a poplar board, 1 inch 
thick. With the " hard " rest the barrel of the rifle was rested directly 
on this board. With the " padded " rest the board was covered with 
an Army blanket, folded to eight thicknesses, and the barrel rested 
thereon. In firing the rifle from the prone position, the regular mili- 
tary prone position w T ith gunsling was used, and in this position it 
should be understood that a heavy pull (about 50 pounds) is exerted 
on the front sling swivel. 

Each rifle was first fired from a table rest, sitting position, with the 
forearm resting on the padded rest at a point 6 inches in front of the 
breech of the barrel. Many previous experiments have shown that 
the elevations obtained in resting in this manner agree exactly with 
the offhand elevations. Care must be taken to sit fairly upright when 
shooting, and to receive the recoil on the shoulder in the same manner 
as when shooting offhand. In the data which follows the point of 
impact as found with this padded forearm rest is the point on the 
target from which measurements were taken in giving the location of 
the other groups obtained under varying conditions of rests. In other 
words the data shows how far off, and in what direction the rifles shot 
from the offhand point of impact when rested in various ways. 

TESTS WITH HEAVY BARREL 

Ten shots, padded forearm rest, gave a group measuring 2.4 inches. 

Five shots with padded rest, 4 inches from the muzzle, gave a 1.5- 
inch group which was 1.25 inches above, and .30 inch to the right of 
the point of impact with the padded forearm rest. 

Five shots with hard rest, 4 inches from the muzzle, gave a 2.3-inch 
group, which was 2.25 inches high and in perfect line. 



4 i4 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Five shots prone with gunsling, gave a 2.23-inch group, which was 
1.50 inches low and .90 inch to the right. 

TESTS WITH LIGHT BARREL 

Five shots with padded forearm rest gave a 2.88-inch group. 

Five shots with padded rest, 4 inches from the muzzle, gave a 3. 50- 
inch group, which was 1.25 inches above and 1.70 inches to the right 
of the point of impact with the padded forearm rest. 

Five shots with hard rest, 4 inches from the muzzle, gave a 3.50-inch 
group, which was .60-inch high and 1.80 inches to the right. 

Five shots prone with gunsling gave a 2.95-inch group which was 
.2 inch low and .9 inch to the right. 

TESTS WITH REDUCED LOADS 

A test with reduced loads at 25 yards was then undertaken with the 
light barrel. The load was as follows: Peters 115-grain, .30-30 
short-range, soft-point, jacketed bullet; 12 grains Du Pont gallery 
rifle powder No. 75; Frankford shells; Remington-U-M-C No. 9 
primers. This is a very accurate load up to 100 yards in Winchester 
barrels. At 25 yards with this light barrel this load shot 3 inches 
lower than the full charged ammunition used in the previous tests, the 
sighting being the same in each case. As before, the basis was the 
point of impact found with the padded forearm rest. 

Five shots with padded forearm rest gave a group measuring 1.12 
inches. 

Five shots with hard muzzle rest, 4 inches from the muzzle, gave a 
group measuring .9 inch, which was 1.12 inches above and .62 inch 
to the right of the group fired with the padded forearm rest. 

Five shots prone with gunsling gave a group measuring .50 inch 
which was .8 inch to the right of the group fired with the padded fore- 
arm rest. 

In the above experiments the question kept constantly in view was : 
" If a sportsman has a rifle correctly sighted for offhand shooting, how 
will it be affected by resting the barrel in various ways such as might 
occur in sport and service?" These tests show the actual effect of 
so resting the rifles having both heavy and thin barrels. I am inclined 
to think that the horizontal deviations with the light barrel were due to 
some cause connected with the unequal support given to the breech 
block of the Krag rifle by the one locking lug on the bolt. 



ZERO ELEVATION, BARREL FLIP, RESTING RIFLE 415 

In shooting from the right shoulder the recoil of the rifle is up and 
to the right; if from the left shoulder, up and to the left; that is, the 
rifle pushes the man back on the side that he shoots from, and turns 
the rifle in the same direction. Now, if the right-handed man rests 
his rifle lightly against the right side of a tree, and holds his gun in 
the same place and position that he uses in offhand shooting, the recoil 
will turn the rifle away from the tree and the shooting will be normal ; 
if he rests it against the left side the recoil will throw the rifle against 
the tree, and the shot will be wild. The converse of this holds for a 
left-handed shooter, or for a rifle with a left-hand twist of rifling. 

The bending of the barrel, the dipping of the muzzle, and the lifting 
of the breech during recoil is usually called " flip." The flip is con- 
stant only for a given charge and the same barrel. A change of load 
will change the flip. Witness the different points of impact given with 
different loads, and as a consequence, the different sight setting re- 
quired. It is well known to military shots that different makes of am- 
munition, often even different dates of loading of the same ammuni- 
tion, will require different elevations, and this notwithstanding that 
the chronograph may show identical velocities. Notice that the Krag 
rifle used in one of the above experiments required 3 inches (12 min- 
utes) more elevation at 25 yards for a light small game load than it 
did for the full charged load. Usually the lighter the load the higher 
the elevation required, but this is not invariable. I have a 40-72 
Winchester Model 1895 rifle which shoots a reduced load 1 foot higher 
at 50 vards than it does the full charged load. The thin barrels of 
military rifles are very sensitive to flip, and often a warped fore- 
arm, or a tight upper band. interfering with expansion of the barrel 
as it heats up, will cause a decided change in the elevation re- 
quired. 

With take-down rifles the flip is greatly increased by the joint be- 
tween the barrel and receiver, so that it is almost impossible to get 
constant results from take-down rifles. Clamp the barrel of a take- 
down rifle in a very heavy, strong, solid vise ; take a hold of the stock 
and push it down or up. Usually one will have no difficulty in moving 
the butt-plate up and down a half inch or more. Some of this move- 
ment is in the take-down joint, and some of it in the joint between 
the stock and action. These movements in joint between stock and 
action, and in take-down joint, are a serious detriment to fine shooting, 
as various conditions of tightness greatly affect the elevations and zero 
in shooting. A take-down rifle may shoot a fine small group on a 



416 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

certain day, at a certain range, and with a certain sight setting, if one 
is careful to hold the rifle exactly the same for each shot. An expert 
shot can often get as fine a group from a take-down rifle as from any 
rifle, and the manufacturer will tell the prospective purchaser that the 
take-down does not interfere with the accuracy. But try this rifle 
some other day, and you will find that while it may still shoot a small 
group, its point of impact has changed entirely. The rifle which sev- 
eral days ago with a certain sight setting and range delivered its shots 
into the center of the bull's-eye may perhaps shoot way off today. I 
have gotten two small groups as much as 5 inches apart at 50 yards 
that I could account for in no other way. To shoot finely, a barrel 
must be screwed very tightly into the action, and it will help a little, 
perhaps, to solder it in. Also the stock must be screwed up very 
tightly to the receiver. 

In order to compare correctly the trajectory of two or more loads 
by means of their point of impact on the target, or the same load under 
varying barrel conditions, we must know the zero elevation of each 
load, and must use this zero as a base to work from. Such data are 
easily obtained. Suppose the sights are \Vi inches above the axis of 
the bore. The bullet of course begins to fall the instant it leaves the 
barrel. Let us say, for example, that a .30-caliber, 220-grain bullet, 
with an initial velocity of 2000 feet per second, in passing over a 12V2- 
yard range falls Y& inch. We can then sight the rifle in on a 12^-yard 
range so that the bullet will hit with its center 1% inches below the 
exact point aimed at (1Y2 inches, height of sight; plus Ys inch, drop of 
bullet). This reading of the sight will then give us our zero elevation 
for that load. Suppose we fire this load at 200 yards and find that 
for this distance it requires an elevation of 8 minutes above the zero. 
Another load similarly requires an elevation of 10 minutes above its 
particular zero at the same range. This proves that the trajectory of 
the first load is flatter than that of the second. With the same sight 
setting it is possible that the second load may have had a higher point 
of impact on the target than the first load, and hence altogether mislead 
one as to its trajectory and power. 

It is from experiments such as are detailed in this chapter that one 
thoroughly learns his rifle. It is not only necessary that a rifle have an 
accurate barrel, and shoot an accurate, well-loaded cartridge ; it must 
also have a solid frame, a heavy grip, a tightly screwed-up stock, and 
sights capable of accurate adjustment and reading to minutes of angle. 



ZERO ELEVATION, BARREL FLIP, RESTING RIFLE 417 

None of these features detract from a hunting arm in the slightest. 
In fact they add to it greatly by permitting one to acquire that knowl- 
edge of his rifle, and skill in its use, which will make sure kills with 
the first shot possible, even at quite long ranges. 






CHAPTER XX 

THE POPE MUZZLE LOADING SYSTEM 

THERE is a class of riflemen who indulge in shooting offhand at 
200 yards at a bull's-eye target, either the German ring target or 
the Standard American target. This form of shooting was introduced 
into this country by the Germans, and is termed Schuetzen shooting. 
Some Schuetzen riflemen develop extraordinary skill in this sport, 
and of course extremely accurate rifles are in demand. There is no 
restriction as to the rifle except that it must be fired offhand without 
artificial support. The Schuetzen rifle is a type by itself. It is usually 
a very heavy rifle, sometimes as much as 13 pounds. It has a long, 
heavy barrel, and a comparatively light charge, the .32-40 and .38-55 
cartridges being those usually used. The bullet is usually either 
loaded ahead of the shell into the rifling by means of a bullet seater 
so that it is already seated in the rifling centrally before being fired, 
and the shell full of powder loaded separately after the bullet ; or else 
the bullet is loaded from the muzzle by means of a false muzzle and 
bullet starter, and shoved down by means of a ramrod to a point just 
in front of the chamber, the shell full of powder only being then loaded 
from the breech in the usual manner. 

Among the makers of fine Schuetzen rifles one man stands supreme. 
Mr. Harry M. Pope has long held the reputation of being the most 
skilled maker of rifle barrels in the world. Of late years he has been 
making all kinds of rifle barrels, and his product has never been ap- 
proached by any other maker. The barrels are made by hand entirely, 
and Mr. Pope will often spend a week on the cutting of one barrel. 
But it is in his Schuetzen barrels that his work is seen at its best. The 
Pope muzzle loading Schuetzen system as made by Mr. Pope himself 
is the very best in the world for accuracy up to 600 yards, bar none, 
and it might also be said that his high-power, long-range target barrels 
have never been surpassed for long-range shooting, although they are 
seldom seen because almost all long-range shooting is confined to mili- 
tary shooting and military competitions where the straight government- 
made, military rifle is prescribed. Mr. Pope will guarantee his 
Schuetzen barrels, muzzle loading, to shoot all their shots into a 2V2- 

418 



THE POPE MUZZLE LOADING SYSTEM 419 

inch group or closer at 200 yards, and I have yet to hear of one of 
them which has not made good. It is thought that Mr. Pope's own 
description of his system and methods will be of interest to the reader 
in view of the extraordinary results obtained with it, and also because 
this description is out of print and can no longer be obtained anywhere. 
It is therefore to a certain extent historical, and is appended here 
both on account of its interest, and so that it will not be lost entirely. 

POPE RIFLE BARRELS 
By H. M. Pope 

By profession I am a mechanical engineer and a skillful workman ; 
for recreation and by preference, a " rifle crank.'' I first made a 
barrel (entirely on a foot lathe) because I could not buy what I 
wanted ; i. e., a .25 caliber, which I made in 1887, before this size was 
manufactured. My first charge was a straight shell holding 25 grains 
of powder and a 100-grain bullet, then a shorter one with 20 or 21 
grains of powder and 85-grain bullet. Finding the making of a suf- 
ficient number of these shells on a foot lathe an arduous task, I re- 
chambered and swaged down a .32-20 shell. I used this shell for 
some time, but on making my first muzzle loader, I swaged down a 
.38 extra-long, center-fire shell, holding 30 grains, and using bullets 
•up to 120 grains. With this rifle I did my best shooting under National 
Rifle Association rules. Being troubled with bursting shells, I finally 
swaged down .32-40 everlasting shells, using 35 grains. This did good 
w r ork muzzle loading, but had passed the, limit for accuracy for breech- 
loading with black powder. Shortly after this I accidentally injured 
my barrel and abandoned this rifle for a 13-pound rifle with set triggers, 
the state of my pocketbook at prize matches giving an unanswerable 
argument that this gave better results than the lighter arm, and later 
experience fully bears this out, and I find that I can still shoot a 
" practical " rifle with the rest, some " arms over your head " cranks to 
the contrary. (Proof, five dead deer with five cartridges, standing and 
running, all in thick woods at usual distances.) The conditions of 
target shooting and field shooting bear no resemblance to one another, 
the most difficult change being not the change in arm, but the change 
from a deliberate aim at a target to the snap shot at game. Therefore 
when you shoot at a target use every refinement known to increase your 
scores, as almost every refinement known for target use is impracticable 
in the field or woods. 

During the period above mentioned I became interested in, and 
thoroughly convinced that, the so-called Schalke system, devised by 




420 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Wm. Hayes and Geo. Schalke, possessed advantages for offhand shoot- 
ing that placed it far in advance of any other system of loading. This 
system I adopted, improving on Mr. Schalke's method of manufacture, 
and altering somewhat the form of cut, though retaining the essential 
features. The above mentioned heavy rifle, as well as the last .25 
caliber, were so made. Their performance was so good that I had to 
fit out my intimate shooting friends, and their im- 
provement in shooting was so marked that I began 
to be besieged by outside parties to make barrels 
for them. This, for a long time, I refused to do, 
but finally these inquiries became so numerous, 
and Mr. Schalke's death occurring about this time, 
I consented, with the result that my barrels are 
Fig. 93 now in the hands of the most expert offhand shots 

The Pope muzzle in the country, and are making scores that are 

loading system unsurpassed, and every man who shoots a Pope 
01 rifling . r _l 

improves his scores. Don t believe me, but watch 

the papers and see if this is not so. 

The Pope system, so called, is, as previously stated, nearly the same 
as the Schalke, the difference being in the shape of the cut, and that 
my barrels are cut to correct shape, while Mr. Schalke's were leaded. 
Mr. Schalke's rifling had eight flat grooves and eight narrow lands, 
with sharp corners to grooves. My rifling is here shown. (See Fig. 
93.) It has eight wide grooves, which are on a radius about three 
times the radius of the bore, and has the corners rounded out, so dirt 
is easier removed, and it is cleaner in use. This groove is cut just 
deep enough to clean the bore in center and give a depth at corners of 
about .004 inch, which is about one-half the depth of the Schalke, but 
which is of ample depth, and works cleaner, and leaves less to depend 
on on upset of the bullet, and is therefore more reliable. The lands 
are very narrow (about one-fifth to one-sixth the width of the groove). 
The bullet is made with a base large enough to fill grooves completely, 
and the body of practically the same diameter as the bore. This gives 
a form that is gas tight, loads very easily (being assisted in this by the 
narrow lands and choke bore), and on upset, instead of the body of 
the bullet meeting only sharp lands and these cutting into the body of 
the bullet more or less unequally, it is immediately held to place by the 
nearly flat center of the broad grooves, and swells out into grooves 
equally and perfectly central; consequently is accurate. 

In this system a false muzzle and starter are used, and the lubri- 



THE POPE MUZZLE LOADING SYSTEM 421 

cated bullet, seated from the muzzle, the shell with powder being after- 
ward inserted in the ordinary way. In doing this the labor is very 
light, as the shooter has to handle nothing over a few ounces weight, 
the rifle standing in the loading stand. By the simple act of pushing 
the bullet home the sharp flat base of the bullet cuts the dirt down 
behind it, and does so exactly alike each time, giving a uniformly clean 
barrel without the labor of cleaning. This is also less labor than the 
ordinary way of seating a greased bullet in the breech, having to invert 





Fig. 94 
The Pope false muzzle and bullet starter 

the rifle and generally sustaining its weight while so doing. The result 
of these things is that we attain all the accuracy of patched bullets, and 
in ordinary hands more, without the labor of cleaning. 

Other things being equal, the man who tires himself least does the 
best shooting in the long run, and if this is accompanied by increased 
accuracy of the rifle, he has a great advantage over his fellows who do 
otherwise. 

A properly made barrel, loaded in this way, will shoot 10-shot groups 
at 200 yards that will average about iV± to \ r h inches less in diameter 
than the same or an equally good barrel shot dirty, bullet seated from 
the breech, while one using bullets seated in the shell is so far out of 
the game as to have no chance whatever on a string of any considerable 
number of shots, if otherwise he is an even match for his competitors. 

One and one quarter to 1V2 inches does not sound much, but on the 
fine ringed targets now in use it means points. I have before me a 
good muzzle-loading group, .32 caliber, 10 shots, 200 yards. On Ger- 
man ring target it counts 250. Another group, shot breech loading, 
bullet seated in the breech, same load, is but 1 inch larger in diameter 
and is the best group I ever saw shot under these conditions. It counts 
245. On the Columbia target the scores are respectively 12 and 21 ; 
on the Standard American 120 and 115. The difference between 
average groups is still more marked, averaging fully 7 or 8 points on 
German ring target. On this no comment is necessary. 



422 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

For steadiness in shooting, I have fired 130 consecutive shots in 10- 
shot strings, measuring from centers of groups 104 inches, an average 
of exactly .8 inch per shot. The largest group was 3.75 inches across 
from center to center of outside shots, and measured o, u /i6 inches. The 
smallest group was 1.8 inches across and measured 6 inches. All but 
two of the shots would cut into a 3-inch circle. 




Fig. 95 
Pope bullet loaded from the muzzle, showing smooth and perfect base 

An advantage that a bullet loaded from the muzzle will always have 
over one loaded from the breech is shown in Fig. 95. This is an en- 
larged view of a .32-caliber bullet seated from the muzzle. Notice the 
perfect base, as the lands cutting forward into the bullet left it nearly 
perfect. Contrast it with a bullet seated in the breech by means of a 
bullet seater in the ordinary way (see Fig. 96). Here the lands 
cutting backzvard into the bullet drag the burrs behind, leaving an 
uneven and serrated base. If this bullet is not perfectly centered these 
burrs will be longer on one side than on the other. As these burrs 
leave the muzzle, the gas escapes first from the short side, tipping the 
bullet to the opposite side, in which it is assisted by the longer burrs 
holding the bullet back ; the result is an uneven, wobbling flight. The 
greatest essential for perfect shooting is to deliver the bullet perfectly 
from the muscle; that being done, atmospheric conditions and gravity 
alone govern its flight ; the result is accurate shooting. 

To illustrate, a group was shot at 200 yards, machine rest, with as 
perfect bullets as I could select, another on same holding with bullets 



THE POPE MUZZLE LOADING SYSTEM 423 

very badly mutilated at the point ; these two grouped closely, a 3-inch 
circle holding all. Another group was then shot with bullets very 
slightly riled on one edge of the base, but otherwise perfect ; this caused 
imperfect delivery, and the group was 8 inches in diameter. Weather 
conditions were good. 

The base band of my bullets is broad and sharp, and of full size; 
the starter centers it perfectly, and fits it to rifling with a perfect base ; 




Fig. 96 
Pope bullet loaded from the breech, showing burrs forced out on the base 

the shape of the grooves hold it central on upset, and it delivers per- 
fect from the muzzle. No other method will do this. 

My barrels are all (unless specially ordered) cut with a gain twist, 
and are so bored and rifled as to have a slight, but gradual, taper from 
breech to muzzle. This, besides keeping bullets perfectly under con- 
trol, in connection with the narrow lands (which cut through the bullet 
easily), makes loading very easy, and very materially increases accu- 
racy. A bullet pushed through from the breech is tight all the way, 
there are no loose places, and this result is attained by close, careful 
workmanship, no emery being used ; the result is a barrel with a long 
life. Whenever practicable I chamber and make all cross-cuts before 
rifling; then I fit a bushing to the chamber and bore and rifle it with 
the barrel and false muzzle. As the rifling is then the last cut made 
in the barrel, I am absolutely certain that there can be no burrs across 
the grooves, a very common fault. 



424 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

The advantages of the gain twist are two: ist — The twist being 
less at the breech, gives less friction to the bullet; it therefore starts 
easier and quicker, giving the powder less time to burn on in front 
of the chamber, which therefore fouls less than in a barrel of uniform 
twist at the same necessary muzzle pitch. 2nd — The slight change in 
angle of rifling, in connection with choke boring, effectually shuts off 
any escape of gas and prevents gas cutting, which is another cause of 
imperfect delivery. 

The advantages of the Pope system are briefly summed up as fol- 
lows : i — Accuracy. 2 — Light labor. 3 — Seating the bullet cen- 
trally without deforming the base, and fitting it perfectly to the bore. 

4 — The shape of the grooves holding the bullet central on upset. 

5 — Non burning-on qualities of the gain twist. 6 — Perfect work- 
manship. 7 — Ability to load from either the breech or muzzle, and 
to clean and inspect from the breech. 8 — The ability to shoot any 
charge desired by inserting shell first, and loading both powder and 
bullet from the muzzle. 

To produce the quality of work that I do, the methods employed in 
factories producing work in large quantities are impossible ; that is to 
say, that this method of interchangeable parts must leave some leeway 
for slight inaccuracies to insure parts assembling. In my work such 
looseness of fit would be fatal to the results attained. False muzzles, 
for instance, it is utterly impossible to make perfectly interchangeable, 
neither is it possible for automatic machinery to produce the same 
quality of work as a skilled workman with brains behind. The auto- 
matic machine does more and does it cheaper, but the quality is not 
there. Therefore I do all nice work by hand, in the very best manner 
I know how. Nothing is slighted. This is slow work and takes ex- 
pensive men. Naturally I cannot compete with factory work in price, 
but, quality considered, my price is very low. 

The Pope muzzle loading outfit consists of barrel, false muzzle, 
starter, ramrod, Pope special muzzle-loading mould, and lubricating 
pump. Barrels will be furnished of almost any length and weight, 
within about 3 to 6 ounces limit of variation up to 8 pounds, 2 ounces, 
for 32-inch, No. 4 Octagon, .32-caliber barrel. I consider for 200- 
yard, offhand work a barrel of about 7% pounds, 30 inches long, and 
round as the best adapted. This I consider my standard, and recom- 
mend it as giving the best average results. For caliber for offhand 
work I prefer a .28, .32, or .33. 



THE POPE MUZZLE LOADING SYSTEM 



4-25 



CALIBERS AND WEIGHTS 



Caliber 


Powder 


•25 


26 grains. 


.28 


30 grains. 


■32 


47 grains. 


•33 


47 grains. 


.38 


55 grains. 


•39 


55 grains. 


Note : 


The .33 a 



M. L. bullet 
98 grains. 

118& 138 grains. 
180 & 200 grains. 
195 & 218 grains. 
277 & 330 grains. 
265 & 343 grains. 



B. L. bul'et 
86 grains. 

108 grains. 

165 & 185 grains. 



255 



grains. 



200 yard guarantee 
3V2 & 3 inches. 
3 & 2V2 inches. 
3 & 2V2 inches. 
3 &2V2 inches. 
3 &2V2 inches. 
3 &2V2 inches. 



The .33 and .39 calibers are recut from old .32 and .38 barrels and are 
adapted to muzzle loading only. 

The weight of powder charges are the drawn shell full. This can 
be decreased by the use of everlasting or special shells, or by using 
less powder and an air space. Weights of B. L. bullets are those in- 
tended to seat in the shell. Barrels are cut with a pitch correct for 
the bullet they are intended to use. Shorter bullets can be used in a 
barrel cut for the long one, but not the reverse. It is oftentimes better 




Fig. 97 
Pope double machine rest with telescope sight, Ballard rifle in position for 

firing 

to use the lighter bullet. Unless specially ordered I shall use my own 
judgment in cutting the barrel. 

It will be noticed that two guarantees are given as to the size of the 
group at 200 yards. There is absolutely no difference in the qualities 
of barrel or workmanship. I have a long trip to make to test, and in 
my guarantee have to make allowance for adverse weather conditions, 
sometimes having to make several trips to the range to secure the de- 
sired results. I never alter a barrel in testing, it is a matter of ammu- 
nition only. If tested you see what has actually been accomplished 
with fine appliances, and know exactly what load did it. If untested, 
you, unless very expert, can hardly expect to equal at once the results 
of my machine rest, and may have to do some experimenting (when 
you become accustomed to the system, not before), to determine the 



426 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

best temper of bullets, etc. You are liable to get as close a group on 
one guarantee as another, as it is largely a matter of weather conditions. 
If weather is good I get close groups; if weather is cold and wind 
tricky they are not so good. It is perfectly obvious that I cannot guar- 
antee to furnish as close a group as the barrel is capable of shooting, 
though I might happen to do so. I believe all my barrels are capable 
of shooting closer than 2-inch groups with favorable weather condi- 
tions. 

The Pope double machine rest is shown in Fig. 97. More informa- 
tion can be derived from its use in a few hours than can be had by 
ordinary rest shooting by an ordinary shooter in as many weeks, as, 
if at all carefully used, it has no human errors of holding and pulling. 
The results, therefore, are those due to rifle, ammunition, and weather 
only ; the man is out of it except so far as his loading of the rifle and 
judgment of the wind are concerned. The mounts are all adjustable 
and clamp to the barrel, no screw holes or marring of the barrel being 
necessary. They take barrels of all ordinary sizes without change, the 
forearm being removed while testing. In use two stout posts are set 
deeply in the ground, the firmer the better, and are braced together. 
A smooth level plank is fastened on top. Both posts are firmly braced 
in two directions, stop is fastened on top plank in proper position, and 
rear rest to rear post so as to give approximately the correct elevation. 
Front rest and scope mountings are clamped to the barrel, the same 
loaded, and slid gently to stop. To sight on I prefer four black 
pasters placed at the corners of a square about 2V2 inches on a side. 
Adjust your rest or telescope, or perhaps both, so the gun points where 
you wish, cross-hairs being between each pair of pasters. Let the rifle 
rest naturally, hold right hand about 6 inches behind the butt, touch the 
set trigger with the left hand, and catch the rifle on recoil. If the 
gun has a heavy pull pinch the trigger and guard with thumb and 
forefinger so as not to disturb the rifle in rest. In setting up it is 
often convenient to set the rest so the rifle will point on the target 
before the telescope is mounted; using the ordinary sights, then mount 
the scope and adjust it to your pasters, and shoot your group, then 
move the rest a fair amount, that depending on how close the gun will 
shoot, then bring your scope again to the pasters and shoot again. It 
very seldom pays to try to get the rifle to shoot at any given spot in 
testing. Hold in one spot and get your group wherever it happens to 
fall. 

A telescope sight is not a necessity in double rest shooting, though 



THE POPE MUZZLE LOADING SYSTEM 427 

it is a great convenience. With it you can shoot from a bench rest 
that is not firm, as the sight gives you a chance to correct the aim each 
time. For all that an absolutely firm bench is best, and if you shoot 
from a double rest without a scope it is an absolute necessity. 



CHAPTER XXI 
TARGET MEASUREMENT 

IN order to compare the relative accuracy of various rifles, and the 
results attained at the target, some standard method of measuring 
the groups fired on the targets is necessary. The score made on any 
target will tell us little, because a rifle may often throw very wild 
shots, and thus be inaccurate, but a score may be made up of a num- 
ber of very close shots, and a few very wild ones, and yet record a 
high score. When we fire a group of shots to determine the accuracy 
of a rifle, or of a certain kind of ammunition, the group usually in- 
cludes ten consecutive shots, and we arbitrarily say that the rifle or 
ammunition is as accurate as the wildest of these ten shots, because if 
we were to fire one single shot with a view to hitting a certain object 
we could not be positive that it would strike closer to the object than 
the wildest of these shots. 

The most usual method of measurement, and the one most satisfac- 
tory to a majority of riflemen, is to determine the diameter of the 
circle which will include the center of all ten shot holes of the group. 
We then say that the rifle or ammunition is capable of firing ten con- 
secutive shots into a circle of such a size, or that it will make such a 
sized group at such a range. In order to measure a group in this 
manner it is necessary to make but one measurement, that is the dis- 
tance in inches and decimals of an inch between the two shot holes of 
the group that are farthest apart. The most practical method of 
making this measurement is to place the target containing the group on 
a sheet of paper, and with a needle carefully prick holes through the 
center of the bullet holes farthest apart into the sheet of paper. The 
center of the bullet hole can, as a rule, be located by the eye alone 
accurately enough. Then remove the target, and with a triangular, 
boxwood, engineer's scale reading to fiftieths of an inch, measure the 
distance between these two needle holes. Fig. 98 illustrates this 
method clearly. 

For the purpose of more accurately determining the relative accuracy 
of various kinds of ammunition we have another method in vogue, 



TARGET MEASUREMENT. 429 

particularly in the Ordnance Departments of the various armies; that 

of determining the mean radius of the group. The mean radius of 

the group is the average distance that ^ — — 

the shots of the group strike from the * N 

center of impact. The center of impact /^~N/->. 

is the average center of the group. C*\ ^*^\^r\ 

First we must determine the center of ^^^ ^-^ V-y^-v 

impact, and then measure the distance \~j ,<,6 ° ~^\ \^_y 

of the center of each shot hole from it, ^ /^~ > i" > ^ ' 

and then take the average. To find the \ ^■"'X J / 

center of impact we must first find the N / 

horizontal center line, and the vertical v ^ f~\''' 

center line passing through the group, ~V-/ 

and where these two lines cross will be . lg ' 9 
, r . Showing the method of meas- 
tne center ot impact. uring a group of shots to de- 
Suppose our rifle and ammunition termine the size of a circle which 
, r 1 ^ p j 1 -11 will contain the centers of all 
has nred the group ot ten shots, lllus- t h e s h Q t holes. 

trated in Fig. 99. We must first find the 

mean vertical deviation. With a square draw a horizontal line through 
the center of the lowest shot on the target. All the shots on the target 
are then numbered consecutively, starting with the highest above this 
base line. The distance from the base line to the center of each shot 
is then measured in inches and hundredths of an inch on perpendiculars 
to the base line on these centers. The total of all these distances 
(there will be nine of them, because the shot which the base line passes 
through has no measurement) are then added and divided by the 
number of shots on the target (ten in this instance). The dividend 
then represents the distance from the base line of a parallel line that is 
the mean vertical center of the group. This vertical center line is 
then drawn on the target, parallel to the bottom base line. 

Now draw a vertical line at right angles to the vertical base line 
(horizontal line at bottom of group) passing through the center of the 
left-hand shot of the group. From this line measure the horizontal 
distance to the centers of each of the shots on the target, and divide 
the sum of these measurements by the total number of shots in the 
group. This dividend represents the distance from the horizontal 
base line of a parallel line that is the mean horizontal center of the 
group. Where the mean vertical center line, and the mean horizontal 
center line cross each other is the center of the group, or the " cen- 
ter of impact." It is indicated in Fig. 99 by a cross, the continua- 



430 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 







o 



© 



© 

— 0- 



© 



Fig. 99 
Method of computing the mean radius of a group 



Number 
of shot 


Vertical 
deviation 


Horizontal 
deviation 


Absolute 
deviation 


I 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

IO 


2.70 inches 
1.70 inches 
1.63 inches 
1.65 inches 
1.40 inches 
1.30 inches 
1.20 inches 
.90 inch 
.70 inch 


2.00 inches 
2.47 inches 
3.60 inches 


1.38 inches 

.78 inch 

1.54 inches 

1.88 inches 


2. 10 inches 
1.50 inches 
1.28 inches 
2.22 inches 
1.80 inches 
1.63 inches 


.25 inch 
.36 inch 
.58 inch 
■55 inch 
.62 inch 
1.32 inches 






Mean 


11.318 inches 


1.860 inches 


.926 inch 



Mean radius .926 inch. Cross indicates center of impact 

tion of the two center lines being omitted for the sake of clearness. 

Note that the vertical base and vertical center lines are drawn on 
the target as horizontal lines, and the horizontal base and horizontal 
center lines are drawn as vertical lines. 

Now measure the distance from the center of impact to the center 
of each shot hole, and add these measurements together, and divide 
by the number of shots in the group. The result will be the mean 



TARGET MEASUREMENT 431 

radius, or mean absolute deviation of the group. The smaller the 
radius, of course, the better the group. 

In testing ammunition at long range, as, for example, the tests held 
in the United States for the purpose of determining the most accurate 
ammunition for the national matches, the mean vertical deviation only 
is taken by measuring the distance of each shot from the vertical center 
line on perpendiculars to that line. This is done because at long range 
the variation due to the wind would make a considerable horizontal 
deviation of the various shots of the group, and this would not be con- 
stant for the various lots of ammunition tested. 

At 1000 yards these ammunition tests are fired on the regular 1000- 
yard target which is 12 feet long and 6. feet high. The various boards 
conducting these tests have made it a rule to assign an arbitrary meas- 
urement of 72 inches for every shot fired which does not hit the target. 




CHAPTER XXII 

ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 

Adjusting trigger pulls. Rebluing a rifle barrel. Repolishing rifle stocks. 
Repairing broken stocks. Checking stocks. Extracting broken shells. Remov- 
ing stuck cleaning rods and patches. Measuring the bore of the rifle. How to 
make a sulphur mould. Muzzle wear. 

ADJUSTING TRIGGER PULLS 

GOOD marksmanship depends to a great extent upon the perfect 
control of the trigger. The pull of the trigger must be such that 
the rifleman can always tell just how much pressure he must exert to 
discharge the rifle, and it must always be constant. As the rifles come 
from the factory very little has been done in the way of adjusting the 
pulls, except on Winchester and government arms. Winchester arms, 
however, while having good, clean pulls, almost invariably have trigger 
pulls much heavier than is desirable, and occasionally a government 
arm is found that has a pull which needs smoothing up. 

Rifles intended for target shooting exclusively usually have set trig- 
gers. These consist of two triggers. Pulling the rear trigger sets 
the front trigger, and the front trigger then pulls off clean with a 
couple of ounces pressure. If the rear trigger be not set, the front 
trigger acts as a regular trigger. Between the two triggers there is a 
small set screw, and by turning up or loosening this the set trigger 
can be made to pull off at any weight. This form of trigger requires 
no special explanation. 

The plain trigger is the one almost invariably seen on military and 
sporting rifles. An experience in many years of rifle shooting has 
taught us that the best pull for such a trigger is one that requires from 
2% to 3% pounds pressure to release the hammer or cocking piece and 
discharge the rifle. Also this pull should be clean and sharp. That is 
to say, there should be no drag, grate, or movement to the trigger before 
the rifle is discharged. The trigger should stand absolutely immovable 
until the requisite pressure is exerted, and then it should give away 
all at once, the rifle going off, something like the breaking of a thin 
rod of glass. 

There are two forms of plain-trigger pull, which we may call the 

432 



ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 433 

sporting-rifle pull, and the bolt-action pull. With the former the trig- 
ger may be either pressed against the hammer or sear by a spring, and 
be practically immovable all the time until the requisite pressure has 
been placed upon it, or it may be loosely hung in the guard, and when 
the pressure is first applied by the trigger finger the trigger at once 
moves back against the sear or hammer, and thereafter is immovable 
until the full pressure has been exerted. 

The bolt-action pull is slightly different from this. There is first 
of all a safety pull or movement to the trigger. When force is first 
applied to the trigger by the finger the trigger moves to the rear from 
Ys to li inch upon the exerting of a pressure of about 1V2 pounds, and 
thereafter is stationary. Then it takes several more pounds pressure 
upon this stationary trigger to fire the rifle. The principal difference 
between the sporting-rifle pull, and the bolt-action pull is that with the 
first named the trigger is practically stationary from the time that the 
first ounce of pressure is applied until the rifle is discharged, and with 
the second named the trigger first moves to the rear a little before 
the real trigger pull starts. It takes a little time for one used to the 
sporting pull to become accustomed to the bolt-action pull, but after it 
is mastered one is practically as good as the other. The rifleman using 
the bolt-action pull simply gets used to grasping the trigger at once 
with sufficient pressure to take up all the safety pull and move the 
trigger to the rear, and thereafter the pull of the two are exactly the 
same. 

As the rifle comes from the factory the pull may need either 
lightening, or smoothing off to eliminate creep, or both. An examina- 
tion of the mechanics of all triggers will show that there are but two 
parts concerned in the pull, the sear, and the notch in the hammer, or 
nose, of the cocking piece. The mainspring is kept compressed by the 
sear bearing against the notch or nose. When the sear is dragged 
away from this notch or nose the mainspring causes the hammer or 
firing pin to fly forward. The weight of the pull depends upon the 
angle at which these two surfaces come together, and the drag or 
creep depends upon the depth to which the sear enters the notch in the 
trigger or bears against the nose of the cocking piece. 

To lighten a trigger pull and eliminate a drag or creep, certain things 
are needed. Several sheets of fine emery paper, a small, thin slip of 
oil stone, a little lubricating oil, and a small spring scales like the 
scales used by the fisherman for weighing fish, which will weigh as 
close as a quarter pound. To weigh a trigger pull, place the hook of 



434 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 




the scales over the trigger, exerting the pull in the same direction that 
the trigger ringer will act in pulling the trigger. Apply tension grad- 
ually, keeping the eye on the graduations on the scale, and noticing 
at what weight the sear releases the hammer or cocking piece. This 
gives the weight of the trigger pull. 

If it is desired simply to lighten the pull, examine 
the surfaces of the sear and notch or cocking piece 
carefully. It will be noticed that they come together 
something like the surfaces A-B in Fig. ioo. In order 
for the sear to release the hammer or cocking piece 
it is necessary for it to act against the tension of the 
mainspring. Now if these two surfaces be ground off 
so as to come together on the lines C-D, not so much 
pressure will have to be exerted against the force of 
the mainspring and the pull will be lighter. Dis- 
mount the various parts and proceed gradually and 
carefully to grind off the two surfaces to conform 
to the angle C-D, being sure to keep the grinding level, and not to 
grind one side more than the other. Go very slow, and assemble the 
parts often and try the pull with the scales. Sometimes as many as 
five or six light strokes on the oil stone will make a great difference 
in the pull, and the whole secret of the thing is to grind very carefully, 
and try the pull very often. Usually very little grinding is necessary 
to lighten the pull to the desired amount, and also usually the novice 
grinds off entirely too much at the first attempt, and spoils one of the 
parts and has to send to the factory for other parts. Remember to go 
very slow, and try often. 

To eliminate the creep or drag, it * 

is necessary either to polish the two 
surfaces of the sear and notch or 
nose so that they slide smoothly over 
each other, or else so to grind the 
two parts that they slide a shorter • 

distance before the release comes. B 

Polish the two surfaces with the Flg - Ior - 

, ,, ,.« ,, r ,, Polish the surfaces on the line 

emery cloth until they are perfectly A _ B where they bear aga j nst 

smooth, like glass, but do not attempt each other. If this does not give 

• j ,, , r Tf ,, • i the desired result, start very care- 

to grind at all at first. If this does fully and slowly t0 grind down 

not eliminate the creep, then the two the upper surface of the sear on 
_ , ,1 , ,« ,, the line C — D, assembling the 

parts must be so ground that they parts and testing f reqU ently. 




ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 435 

have a shorter distance to slide over one another. Do not in any case 
attempt to lessen the width of the notch in a hammer, as this will al- 
most always simply result in the hammer sticking in the half-cock 
notch when the trigger is pulled, instead of falling all the way and 
driving the firing pin forward. Instead, work on the sear, so grinding 
it that it will not enter quite so far into the notch, or project up against 
the cocking piece. 

On a bolt-action rifle, first polish the surfaces of the sear and 
cocking piece where they bear against one another, being careful not 
to wear them, nor to alter the angle at which they bear against each 
other. If this does not improve the pull to the desired extent, com- 
mence very carefully and slowly grinding off the top of the sear so that 
it does not project up so far and engage so much of the cocking piece, 
but go very slowly, and put the parts together and try often. In this 
way the pull can be refined to the desired point. See Fig. 101. 

REBLUING A RIFLE BARREL 

One often wishes to reblue the barrel of a rifle which has become 
worn, or which has been cut with slots and screw holes for various 
sights or telescope sight mountings, and it is desired to hide these cuts 
or holes. To fill in old screw holes, obtain well fitting screws of the 
same pitch of thread as the holes in the barrel. File off the points of 
these screws so that they have square points. Carefully clean all 
oil out of the screw holes in the barrel, and also off the screws. Screw 
these screws tightly into the holes, and then cut them off either with a 
file or hack saw, so as to leave not over %4 of an inch of screw project- 
ing above the surface of the barrel. If using a hack saw for this pur- 
pose be sure to use the saw only in such a direction as to tighten the 
screw and not to loosen it. Now, using a light hammer with a small 
round point or pene, hammer the ends of the screws down smooth with 
the surface of the barrel so as to make a tight joint, and a smooth sur- 
face that one will not be able to detect after the bluing has been done. 

Next you must have some bluing or browning solution prepared. 
Have this done by some first-class druggist, and tell him what you 
wish the solution for, as the promiscuous sale of some of the ingredi- 
ents is prohibited in most States. 

Spirit of nitre 3 drams 

Tincture of iron 3 drams 

Sulphur 1 dram 

Blue vitrol 2 drams 

Corrosive sublimate 1 dram 

Nitric acid V2 dram 



436 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Copperas i dram 

Distilled water 12 ounces 

Have it put in a colored glass bottle a week or two before you want to 
use it, and be sure to label it " poison." 

All the old finish, bluing, and rust spots on the barrel must now be 
removed by scouring it with emery cloth and steel wool. Oil the bar- 
rel well inside with heavy grease like cosmic or any thick gun grease, 
and plug up both the breech and muzzle with strong wooden plugs 
which project out of both the breech and muzzle two or three inches. 
These plugs are to serve two purposes : first, to prevent the bluing so- 
lution from getting into the bore and rusting it ; and, second, to han- 
dle the barrel with during the bluing process. Both plugs should be 
well saturated with oil where they enter the bore. 

One must get absolutely every bit of the oil off the outside surface 
of the barrel, and then neither the hands nor any oily thing must touch 
the barrel during the treatment. To get all the oil off it is best to 
wash the exterior over with a solution of lime and water about as 
thick as thin cream. Let this dry on, and then remove with clean, 
dry cloths that are perfectly free from any oil. Woolen rags should 
not be used as they are of an oily nature. 

Now apply the bluing solution by means of a swab made by folding 
up an old, clean piece of canton flannel to about 6 thicknesses, and 
holding this in a split stick or clothes pin. Keep the solution well 
stirred up, and above all keep it away from the clothes and hands as it 
will burn badly. Go over the barrel with long strokes from one end 
to the other. Set the barrel away for 24 hours in a rather damp place, 
not a steam-heated house, and then wipe off the rust or residue with a 
clean rag large enough so as not to touch the barrel with the bare 
hands or fingers. Of course the rag should not have a trace of oil 
on it. Then apply another coat of the bluing solution, applying a coat 
each day, after wiping off the rust of the past 24 hours. The number 
of such treatments necessary will depend upon the amount of moisture 
in the air, and the character of the steel. Ordinary steel and a damp 
climate will require about 6 treatments on 6 successive days. Nickel 
steel will require about 12 treatments unless it is very damp. A non- 
corrosive steel like " Poldi anti-corro " may require as many as 30 
treatments to get on the required coat of rust. Wipe off the free rust 
only each day ; that is, only the loose rust, but not all the color. Wipe 
evenly and gently, or the surface may look patchy. The thing is to 



ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 437 

continue applying the solution, and allowing the rust to form, until the 
color desired is acquired, usually a rich dark brown. 

At last, when this color is acquired, wash the barrel very thoroughly 
with boiling water to remove all further rusting action. Do not be 
afraid to use plenty of boiling water. Then go over it evenly and 
gently with soft, dry cloths until the surface is bone dry. Now while 
the metal is still hot, and the surface dry, apply liberal quantities of 
linseed oil with woolen cloths, covering the barrel evenly with long, 
gentle strokes, and gentle pressure. It is quite easy to remove the 
bluing in spots by hard rubbing at this stage. 

Watch the barrel for a few days to see if further rust action takes 
place. Should it do so, at once wipe off the oil and apply more boiling 
water, dry carefully, and again apply the linseed oil. Future appli- 
cations of the linseed oil will help to deepen the color and prevent rust. 
Do not slight any of the operations. 

REPOLISHING RIFLE STOCKS 

The ordinary stock on the straight American factory rifle is not pol- 
ished. It is simply varnished. Some high-grade stocks are likewise 
varnished with a glass-like finish. A varnished stock is an abomina- 
tion. It looks well when new, but a few weeks of field service covers 
it with scratches which cannot be obliterated by any amount of rub- 
bing with oil. And when the varnish is worn off such a stock it absorbs 
water and warps badly. The best stocks are finished or polished simply 
by repeated rubbings in of raw linseed oil, this finish being given the 
trade name of '• dull London oil finish." Well done in this manner, 
the stock shows its grain beautifully, has a dull, rich, velvet-like sur- 
face which persists, resists dampness splendidly, and if it becomes 
scratched the scratches can be almost entirely obliterated by a rubbing 
with raw linseed oil. This is the finish which all stocks and forearms 
should have. 

It is an easy matter for any one to repolish a stock in this manner, 
and it adds much to the appearance and serviceability of the rifle. Go 
to a paint and oil shop and purchase half a pint of varnish remover, 
and a pint of raw linseed oil. Also get several sheets of medium, fine, 
and very fine sandpaper. Remove the stock and forearm from the 
rifle, and take off butt-plate and all metal parts. With a brush or cloth 
wet the stock all over with the varnish remover, and let it soak in for 
half an hour, then rub off. One or two applications of this will suf- 
fice to remove all the varnish. Then scrub the surface of the wood 



438 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

all over with water, wetting it thoroughly. This will raise the grain of 
the stock, making it look " fuzzy." The wood 'should then be dried 
quickly by holding it over a stove, or passing it over a lamp. This 
will help to raise the grain still further. Then sandpaper off the raised 
grain or " fuzziness," using the medium-grade sandpaper. Repeat this 
process of wetting, drying, and sandpapering four or five times, the 
last time or two using the fine and very fine sandpaper for the polish- 
ing. The object of this is to get a permanent, very smooth, velvety 
surface on which the grain will not raise up when the wood becomes 
wet. When you can no longer raise the grain by wetting the wood 
and drying, dry it thoroughly, give it a fine polish with the very fine 
sandpaper, and set the stock away over night in a dry place. 

We are now ready for the oil finish. Pour about a teaspoonful of 
raw linseed oil on the surface of the wood, and polish it with the palm 
of the bare hand, rubbing the oil well into the wood, and continuing 
the rubbing without stopping until the oil is all rubbed in, and the wood 
becomes dry and warm from the friction. Repeat this rubbing with 
oil time after time on every part of the stock and forearm until the 
finish desired is attained. The excellent finish seen on very expensive 
stocks is attained in this manner, sometimes as many as thirty or forty 
coats of oil being rubbed in by hand. Once the stock and forearm 
have been polished in this manner all they will need to keep them in 
perfect condition and appearance is an occasional polish with the raw 
linseed oil. This should be done every time the rifle gets wet with 
rain or perspiration. The checked portion of the stock and forearm, 
and the cuts into which the metal work of the receiver and barrel fits, 
can be polished by oiling with a tooth brush. Do not rub hard enough 
on the checking to dull it. Before assembling the stock and forearm 
to the rifle, it is well to coat the cuts which the tang and guard fit into, 
the surface of the wood under the butt plate, and the inside of the 
forearm with beeswax or some very heavy grease like Winchester gun 
grease or Corol. W'alnut has become so expensive and scarce lately 
that many ordinary stocks are now made of other woods. These may 
require the application of a dark walnut stain before the oil is applied. 

REPAIRING BROKEN STOCKS 

Stocks sometimes break at the grip. This nearly always occurs as 
a result of an accident on a hunting trip, and if the trip is not to be 
spoiled the stock must be mended with the materials at hand. If one 
has any large nails file off the heads of a couple and point each end 



ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 439 

sharply. Use them as dowel pins, inserting one end in the grip por- 
tion above the break, and the other end in the main portion of the 
stock, drilling holes for them with an awl or gimlet. The pins should 
run lengthwise with the grip. Press and drive the two portions of the 
stock together. If you have any canoe glue along, this may be used also. 
Next take two common table knives from the kitchen outfit, remove 
the wooden handles, and file off the guards on one side. With a pen- 
knife cut a shallow recess on each side of the grip so as to sink the 
knives into the surface of the wood so that their surface which has 
had the guard filed off shall lie flush with the surface of the wood. 
Then tightly wrap the whole grip over the knives and for quite a 
distance above, below, and over the break preferably with copper wire, 
or fish line. Or a piece of raw-hide can be soaked in water until it 
becomes supple, wrapped tightly around the grip, and strongly sewed, 
allowing it to dry in place and tighten. This will make a strong, stiff 
repair, and the rifle will be serviceable again. Many of the explorers 
and trappers of the Old West used to wrap their stocks in several 
thicknesses of green raw-hide, tightly sewed and laced on. When this 
covering dried it became as hard as iron, and very tight, and it made 
the stock practically unbreakable. Every hunting outfit except the 
very lightest should include a file, a small tool handle containing awls, 
gimlet, screw-driver, etc., a coil of copper wire, and a small box of 
assorted nails and rivets. These will come in handy for many differ- 
ent repairs. Of course every outfit has a knife and whetstone. 

CHECKING STOCKS 

The rifleman may sometime wish to check a rifle stock. He may 
have a perfectly plain factory rifle with plain stock, and the checking 
will improve the looks greatly, and at the same time make the grip 
more secure. Or it may be that he is remodelling a military arm into 
a sporting rifle. The operation of checking a stock or forearm is not 
so difficult as it would seem, any one who will take a little pains, care, 
and time can master it. Xo special skill is required other than a good 
eye and a little practice. The following methods of checking I have 
evolved myself, and they have worked so well that my third attempt 
was practically as good as the factory product. The only tools neces- 
sary are a checking tool shown in Fig. 102, a small jeweler's file, and 
a flexible ruler such as a piece of steel tape or celluloid. My own 
checking tool was made from a square rod of tool steel Vs inch square. 
One end was heated and bent to the shape shown, the teeth cut in with 



440 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

a file, and then tempered. A cartridge shell was fitted to the other 
end as a handle. The small jeweler's file should have a sharp edge 
(the half-round pattern does very well), and is for cleaning up the 
corners of the checking where it is difficult to reach it with the check- 
ing tool. Make the teeth on the checking tool the correct size for a 
medium-size diamond such as is seen in Winchester stocks. A small 
diamond is too trying on the eyes to cut, and a large diamond shows 
all the mistakes of the amateur. 

Practice on several odd pieces of walnut or similar wood before 
trying to check a stock. It takes a couple of hours to become fairly 
proficient at cutting the lines straight, of even depth, and of even slope 
on each side. Rule the first line in either direction with pencil and 
flexible ruler, taking care that the two lines make the correct angle 
with each other so as to get a properly shaped diamond. Grasp the 
tool with the index finger lying just above the curve. Tilt the tool a' 
little to the right so that only one set of teeth will cut at first, and cut 
the first line, following the pencil line with great care, and making the 
first cut merely a scratch. Then deepen this scratch just a little with 
succeeding cuts. It is important that the first scratch be exactly right 
as the tool will afterwards follow that, and if it be crooked the final 
cut will be crooked. If you get the first scratch crooked it is very 
difficult to straighten it. The motion of cutting with the tool is similar 
to that of filing. When the first groove is about half cut it acts as a 
guide for the next. Go on with the cutting but gradually lean the tool 
over to the left so that it will begin to cut a groove on the left of the 
first groove. Do not cut any groove to its full depth at first as you 
are tilting the tool all the time in cutting one groove after another and 
you would not finish them up with an even slope on each side. Cut 
all the grooves first to about half the depth required, then go over the 
work again, this time holding the tool straight up and down so that 
both sets of teeth cut evenly, and cut each groove to the required 
depth. When you can make fairly perfect diamonds and border on 
a piece of wood, working on both a flat and rounded surface, you are 
ready to undertake the actual operation on a rifle. Remove the stock 
and forearm from the rifle, and remove the butt plate and all metal 
or rubber parts. If the wood has been polished or oiled, remove the 
oil with a varnish remover, wash the stock, smooth it down with very 
fine sandpaper, until you get a smooth surface of plain walnut without 
any polish. 

Start on the forearm first, as it is much easier than the grip of the 



ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 



44i 




} [ 



Fig. leu 



/ 



Fig. 104 



VI 



Fig. 105 



Fig. 106 



stock. With the flexihle ruler lay off the outline of the checking you 
desire in pencil lines. Be sure that this outline is so laid off that the 
resulting diamonds of the check will be of the correct proportions. 
The tendency of the amateur is to make them too square. The border 
of your pattern should be a single pencil line which is cut into a double 
line with the checking tool. The diamonds are to be cut only up to 
the inside of the two border lines. This makes the very neat border 
seen on Winchester stocks. Fig. 103 shows the first pencil outline. 
Cut that portion of this outline into a double line as shown by the 
full lines in Fig. 104 first, but do not cut that portion of the border 
shown by dotted lines at all at first. Next, prolong the inside, single, 
full, border line on either side of the forearm at the rear until they 
cross as shown at A in Fig. 105. Then proceed to cut lines parallel 
to these, and the diamonds will start to form at A and develop from 
there outward as each parallel line is cut. The first two lines to cross 
each other are the guide lines. This procedure insures getting per- 
fect diamonds throughout the whole work and you do not have two 
lines forced too close together. When you have finished cutting the 
diamonds in the space B, Fig. 105, cut the border lines adjacent 



442 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



thereto indicated by the dotted lines. Similarly when the diamonds 
approach the clotted lines representing the forward border lines, cut 
those lines. The border represented by the dotted lines must be 
dependent for its exact location upon the diamonds adjacent thereto, 
otherwise the two may not meet exactly, or the lines may not come 
out parallel, either of which will make a poor looking job. All this 
seems a little ambiguous in print, but as the work progresses one will 
easily understand it. 

You will find it difficult to reach with the checking tool into the ex- 
treme triangular corners of the patterns. These should be dressed out 
carefully with the point of the file. 





In checking the pistol grip the procedure should be slightly different. 
Here you should lay out and cut all the double border lines first. Then 
cut one diamond line across the entire middle of the pattern by pro- 
longing one of the inside border lines as shown in Fig. 107. Then 
cut lines parallel to this one over the entire pattern. Then prolong 
the other inside border line in the opposite direction as shown in 
Fig. 108, and complete the diamond lines in this direction, thus finish- 
ing the checking. 

You will find it difficult at first to cut the lines exactly parallel when 
working over a curved or rounded surface. They will tend to curve 
off in one direction. You must watch this closely, constantly lining up 
the work with your eye, and making the small, almost infinitesimal 
allowances and corrections which will prevent this. Do not cut the 
grooves quite as deep as desired at first, and be careful that your tool 
does not slip, especially at the end of a groove, and when approaching 
the border. Try to get the grooves of a uniform depth. 

Having completed the checking almost deep enough, brush out all 
dust from the diamonds with a tooth brush, and give the checked sur- 
face a slight coat of oil. When this oil has dried all the irregularities 



ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 443 

in the checking will be clearly seen. If you have done your work 
carefully these irregularities will only be in the depth of certain parts 
of the checking, and the size of the tops of the diamonds. With the 
checking tool go over again all the shallow places until all is uniform, 
and with the small file dress up all the corners, and ends of lines, and 
your checking is complete. 

EXTRACTING BROKEN SHELLS 

Once in a great while a shell will break in the neck or body upon 
being fired, and, parting, the forward portion will be carried up into 
the rifling, or into the neck of the chamber, and be so firmly lodged 
there that it defies all ordinary attempts to remove it. The base of 
the shell, with the head attached, is of course easily extracted in the 
ordinary manner. This trouble is much more liable to occur with 
straight or straight-taper shells like the .32-40, .38-55, and .45-70 
than with the modern bottle-necked shells using smokeless powder. 
And it is also more liable to occur with old shells that have been 
loaded for a number of years than with new cartridges. When any- 
thing happens to a smokeless powder cartridge having a bottle-necked 
shell, it is almost always a longitudinal crack at the neck, the shell 
practically never being broken in two pieces, and this occasions little 
trouble. Trouble is found mostly with old .45-70 cartridges that have 
been in store many years, the shells having become corroded around 
where the base of the bullet meets the powder, and when fired the 
bullet pulls the shell apart and takes the forward portion with it up 
into the throat of the chamber, or even into the rifling. 

Of course when this happens the rifle is temporarily useless. Both 
the Ideal Manufacturing Company, and the Marble Arms and Mfg. 
Company make little broken-shell extractors designed to extract 
broken shells. These are little steel tools shaped somewhat like a 
cartridge shell, having the same head so that they can be operated by 
the bolt or breech-block of the rifle, and extracted in the ordinary 
manner. When inserted in the chamber they slip inside the broken 
shell. The rifle is closed and they wedge fast to the shell, and when 
the rifle is opened the broken piece extracts with them. With the 
Ideal extractor, when it is inserted in the chamber the barrel should 
be pointed downward in a vertical position, and the muzzle pounded 
lightly on the floor once or twice to cause the little steel ball inside 
the extractor to run down and force the extractor to grip the broken 
shell. If the shell sticks very tightly it may be necessary to assist 



444 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



the bolt in withdrawing the shell by inserting the cleaning rod from 
the muzzle, and striking the end of the rod with a hammer while 
force is being applied to the action to open it. 




Fig. 109 

The Ideal broken shell extractor 

The Marble broken shell extractor 

These extractors work very well when the broken shell has lodged 
in the chamber or in the throat of the chamber, but of course they will 
not act at all when the broken portion has been carried up into the 
rifling. The Ordnance Department of the Army furnish a little broken 
shell extractor to force out pieces of shell which have been carried 
up into the rifling. It consists simply of a small cylindrical piece of 
steel which perfectly fits the bore of the rifle, having lands on it which 
correspond to the grooves of the rifle, so that when it is inserted in 
the bore it fully fills the bore everywhere. This is inserted in the 
muzzle of the rifle, and pushed down on to the broken shell with the 
cleaning rod. A few blows on the cleaning rod then suffice to drive 
both the broken piece and the extractor out at the breech. This ex- 
tractor is made only for the .30-caliber, government arms with the 
regular 4-groove government standard of rifling, and cannot be used 
in any other rifles. 

If a portion of the shell should be carried up into the rifling and 
stick there, procure a short piece of brass rod, such as a piece filed off 
the end of the cleaning rod. Upset it slightly by pounding it on one 
end with a hammer until it is just about the size of the bore to the 
bottom of the rifling, and flat and square cornered on the pounded 
end. A tap with, the hammer will suffice to drive this brass plug into 
the bore at the muzzle, it taking the impression of the grooves of the 



ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 445 

rifling, and fitting the bore perfectly. It can then be driven down on 
top of the piece of broken shell with the cleaning rod, and the broken 
shell and piece of brass driven out at the breech. 

On a hunting trip I always carry a broken shell extractor in the 
recess in the butt of the rifle. If the rifle has no trap in the butt- 
plate, the butt-plate can be removed, a small hole bored in the butt 
and the broken shell extractor placed therein, running in some melted 
beeswax around it to keep it from rattling and rusting. Also I always 
carry a short piece of brass rod about one-quarter inch in diameter 
and five inches long. This comes in handy for knocking front sights 
in and out of their slot, for driving nails out of shoes, etc., and a 
short piece can always be cut off for extracting broken shells. 

The breaking of shells in this manner is very infrequent indeed in 
these days. In fact in all my experience I have only seen one case 
of it, and that was nineteen years ago with a .45-caliber Springfield 
rifle using black powder. 

High-power cartridges which have been in store for a long time 
frequently break longitudinally at the neck, but this causes no trouble 
at all. Ammunition which is known to do this, however, should not 
be used, as the chamber will ultimately become badly gas cut from 
repeated splitting of shells. 

REMOVING STUCK CLEANING RODS AND PATCHES 

It often happens that, in the process of cleaning the rifle, the clean- 
ing rod and patch become stuck in the bore, and cannot be forced out. 
This is almost always the result of carelessness, and is caused by 
using too thick a patch, or a patch of poor material which the rod 
punctures. Patches should be carefully cut to the correct size, and 
should be of good material, preferably of canton flannel, or of any 
thick flannel. It will add to the absorbing qualities of the material 
if it be thoroughly soaked in water several times and hung up to dry 
without wringing out. Do not use pieces of old underclothing, or 
other poor and thin material which the tip of the cleaning rod is apt 
to tear or penetrate. The patch should be of such a size that it re- 
quires approximately five pounds pressure to push and pull, it through 
the bore. It should go through easily without force. 

If it happens that a cleaning rod becomes stuck in the bore do not 
attempt to use force to pull or drive it out. By doing so one is very 
liable to injure either the bore or rod, probably both. Instead, at once 
pour some thin lubricating oil in at the muzzle of the bore, standing 



446 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

the rifle up and letting the stuck patch get thoroughly soaked with 
oil. Then after about an hour's soaking from the muzzle reverse the 
rifle and pour the oil in from the breech, and let the patch soak again 
in this position. Both the patch and the entire bore thus become soaked 
and lubricated. After this the cleaning rod and patch can usually be 
easily pushed or pulled out of the bore. If, however, they should 
still stick tightly it will be necessary completely to dismount the barrel, 
taking off the forearm. Place the barrel above a gas or oil stove and 
heat it, being careful however not to heat it hot enough to injure it 
or the bluing. It is not necessary to heat it very hot. Three or four 
minutes in the flame of a small gas burner, or a small oil stove will 
suffice. This heat expands the bore slightly, and slightly chars the 
patch, and it can then be readily pushed out. 

Never attempt to use a patch which seems to start tightly into the 
bore. Pull it out, discard it, and use slightly smaller pieces. Re- 
member that when you are using ammonia for cleaning, and are 
drying the ammonia out of the bore, the second and third dry patches 
that you use after the ammonia patches, or the ammonia soaking, 
should be quite a little smaller than the others or they will stick. By 
using these precautions, always using good flannel, and taking care 
as to the size of the patches, I have never had a rod stuck in the 
rifle, but I have often been called upon to remove rods and patches 
which novices have managed to get securely stuck through lack of 
knowledge as to the precautions to be taken. 

MEASURING THE BORE OF THE RIFLE 

Throughout this work the "groove diameter" of the bore has been 
frequently referred to, meaning the diameter of the inside of the bar- 
rel, measuring from the bottom of one groove to the bottom of the 
opposite groove. This diameter is quite important when working 
up an accurate load for a rifle, because it indicates the exact size and 
fit of the bullet which will do the best work as a rule. The groove 
diameter of a barrel varies considerably, even in rifles chambered for 
the same cartridge. This is due chiefly to speed of manufacture, 
and wear of drills and cutters. I have measured a number of 
.30-caliber barrels which had measurements running all the way from 
.308 to .311 inch, the standard being .308 inch. It is always desirable 
to find out the exact diameter by actually measuring the bore, and not 
to trust too implicitly that it is exact standard. 



ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 447 

In selecting a barrel one of the things we should look for is evenness 
of bore. The bore should have no tight or loose places. A rifle will 
do its best work if it is a perfect cylinder from breech to muzzle, not 
of course taking into consideration the grooves. Some riflemen think 
that a very slight taper from breech to muzzle, tighter at the muzzle 
than breech, is even better than a straight cylinder, and at least it can 
do no harm if it is not too pronounced. Such taper, except in Pope 
muzzle-loading barrels, is always accidental ; all our barrels being 
designed to be a true cylinder. 

To determine the size and evenness of the bore it is necessary to 
push a lead bullet through it, and then to measure that bullet with a 
micrometer caliper which reads to thousandths of an inch or finer. 
For this purpose a soft lead bullet is best, and it should fit the bore 
rather tightly. For the .30-caliber a lead bullet for the .32-20 cart- 
ridge does excellently, as it is .003 larger than the standard .30-caliber 
size, and is made of almost pure lead. The barrel should first be 
well cleaned, and then lubricated with a thin oil like "3 in 1" or sew- 
ing machine oil. The bullet is then inserted point first into the cham- 
ber, and very carefully seated in the rifling a little ahead of the 
chamber. Then place the rifle in a very heavy vise, like a carpenter's 
wood vise, fastened to a heavy bench. Take a strong cleaning rod 
almost the diameter of the bore, and with a powerful, but very 
steady pressure, push the bullet through the bore w r ith one motion, 
noting the pressure which it takes to send it through. After a little 
practice one can tell by the pressure whether there are any tight or 
loose places in the bore. As the bullet emerges from the muzzle, 
catch it carefully so that it will not be in the least deformed, and 
measure it carefully with the micrometer, measuring the maximum 
diameter where the bullet has fitted down into the grooves. This will 
give the groove diameter of the barrel, usually the diameter near the 
muzzle. To obtain the diameter at the muzzle and breech insert a 
bullet into either end just a little way, place the end of the cleaning 
rod against it, and give the rod a sharp blow with a hammer so as 
to fully expand the bullet to fit the rifling at this point, but not to 
drive it far forward. Then insert the cleaning rod at the opposite 
end of the bore and carefully push out the bullet, and measure it. To 
determine whether the bore is choked or not, force a bullet through 
in one direction and note the force and feeling, and then reverse and 
force one through in the opposite direction. All this takes a little 



448 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

skill, but it is easily learned. The main thing is to see that the bullet 
is not deformed as it leaves the bore. A little fall, or jam will con- 
siderably alter the dimensions of a soft lead bullet. 

In using a micrometer caliper do not use any force in screwing it 
up. The tool usually has a ratchet click to the screw handle, and the 
correct pressure is being applied to the screw to give the right read- 
ing when this ratchet has clicked once or twice. Before starting in 
to measure, standardize the micrometer by measuring something of 
known diameter. The .30-caliber, 150-grain, United States service 
bullet, for example, should measure just about .30825 inch. 

HOW TO MAKE A SULPHUR MOULD 

It often happens that one wishes to measure the chamber of his rifle 
to determine its exact size and dimensions, and to determine how these 
compare with the measurements of the cartridge and bullet. The best 
method of doing this is to make a sulphur mould of the chamber, and 
then measure the mould with a pair of micrometer calipers reading to 
thousandths of an inch. 

First, wipe the bore of the rifle, and the chamber as well, perfectly 
dry and clean, using gasoline and then dry patches. If any metal 
fouling is present, use the regular metal fouling solution. Then run 
through a patch saturated with kerosene until there is a thin coating 
of this oil covering all portions of the bore and chamber. Next, melt 
powdered sulphur in an iron dish with a lip of some kind from which 
a small, thin stream can be poured. This is best done over a gas flame 
or alcohol lamp. Have at hand a cover of some kind for the dish so 
that the flame can be smothered in case the sulphur catches fire. Put 
a tight wooden plug in the bore of the rifle just ahead of the chamber. 
Then pour the fluid sulphur into the chamber from the breech. As 
the sulphur cools a hole will form in the center. Keep on pouring 
slowly until this hole is filled up. Allow it to stand a short time to 
cool and solidify, then push it out carefully by means of a cleaning 
rod inserted from the muzzle. It may start rather hard at first, in 
which case try a few very light taps on the cleaning rod with a ham- 
mer, being careful not to hurt the mould. The mould will make a 
perfect cast of the chamber, and the shape and measurements of the 
chamber can be determined from it. A sulphur mould will not change 
for the first 48 hours after it is taken out, but after that you may 
expect it to shrink about .001 inch, and the surface will change until 
it has a rough appearance. 



ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 449 

MUZZLE- WEAR 

We have always believed that muzzle wear caused by the friction 
of the cleaning rod against the muzzle of the rifle when cleaning from 
the muzzle ruined the accuracy of the rifle. To determine the truth 
in this matter the following experiment was undertaken. The shoot- 
ing was at 100 yards with muzzle and elbow rest. The groups were 
ten shots each. The rifle was a .30-40 Winchester single shot with a 
30-inch, No. 3 round barrel. The groove diameter of the barrel was 
.3082 inches. The rifle was sighted with a Winchester A5 telescope 
sight. The mountings of this sight are such a distance apart that one 
minute on the mounting actually equals an adjustment of only half 
a minute of angle ; that is, raising the elevation from 80 to 82 minutes 
with those mountings raises the point of impact 1 inch at 100 yards. 
This should be understood in order to comprehend the results. 

Groups Nos. 1, 2, and 3 were fired with the muzzle in perfect, normal 
condition with three different makes of ammunition, all being the 
high-power ammunition with 220-grain, soft-point bullet. The size 
of these groups is given in the tabulation below, both the mean radius, 
and the diameter of the circle which will contain the center of all the 
shot holes (group measure) being given. The muzzle was then 
slightly deformed (worn), to approximate as nearly as possible long- 
continued muzzle wear with the cleaning rod. The enlargement was 
done with a very fine rat-tail file and afterwards smoothed off with a 
whetstone, the muzzle being enlarged unevenly so that at the bottom 
of the bore at the muzzle the enlargement was .006 inch measuring 
from the top of the lands, while at the top of the bore the enlargement 
was only .002 inch. Groups Nos. 4, 5, and 6 were then shot with 
identical conditions as to weather, rest, sight adjustment, point of 
aim, and ammunition. The ammunition used in Groups 1 and 4, 2 
and 5, 3, and 6 were the same from the same box of 20 rounds pur- 
chased fresh from the factories for this purpose. In the tabulation 
elevation and windage readings have been corrected to bring the 
center of impact to the point of aim so that these readings will show 
the relative difference in points of impact, bearing in mind that one 
minute in the table is equal to half an inch at 100 yards as explained 
above. 



450 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

MUZZLE WEAR TEST. GROUPS FIRED AT ioo YARDS 



Group 
No. 


Mean 
radius, 
inches 


Group 

measure, 

inches 


Elevation, 
1/2 minute 


Windage, 
V> minute 


I 


.982 


4.20 


72.5 


91. (a) 


2 


1. 183 


3-30 


80.4 


9i. (b) 


3 


.852 


3-8o 


S3- 


93- (c) 


4 


.630 


2.82 


S3- 


95-5 


5 


.620 


1-75 


80.5 


94-5 


6 


.691 


1.70 


75- 


94. 


7 


.486 


1-33 


84. 


95-5 



(a) 8 shots of this group measure 2.18 inches. 

(b) 8 shots of this group measure 2.59 inches. 

(c) 9 shots of this group measure 1.90 inches. 

Groups shot from commercial rifles are almost always considerably enlarged 
by one, or usually two off shots as explained in the chapter on Accuracy. 

Groups Nos. I, 2, and 3 should be scanned carefully by those who 
use sights on their hunting rifles which are not adjustable for eleva- 
tion. These were shot from a heavy No. 3 barrel, which is almost 
twice as thick as the barrels usually seen on repeating rifles. Not- 
withstanding this, if we take the first make of ammunition used in 
Group No. 1 as a standard, we will see that No. 2 make shot 4 inches 
lower at 100 yards, and No. 3 make 5.25 inches lower and 1 inch to 
the left. Moreover, although not shown in the tabulation, the first 
make of ammunition shot iM inches higher on this day than what may 
be called its normal elevation. 

It will be seen that after the muzzle of this rifle was deformed it 
grouped its shots on an average 1.33 inches to the left of where it 
grouped them before when the muzzle was perfect. With one make 
of ammunition it shot 5.25 inches lower after deforming than before. 
With the second lot of ammunition the elevation was practically the 
same after as before, and with the third lot the rifle shot its group 4 
inches higher on the target after deformation than it did before. No 
attempt is made to explain these differences. The test was made with 
extreme care, the results checked up many times, and it can be relied on. 

It will be noticed that the rifle shot smaller groups in every case 
after the muzzle was deformed than when it had a perfect muzzle. 
This is merely a coincidence and does not of itself prove anything 
except that deforming the muzzle does not destroy the accuracy of 
the rifle. It does, however, entirely change the normal sighting of the 
rifle. This is in line with the experiments of Dr. Mann, he having 
found practically the same thing. If the rifleman cleans his rifle from 
the muzzle, and does not take care that the cleaning rod does not rub 



ADJUSTMENTS AND REPAIRS 451 

the muzzle in doing so, the muzzle will become worn very gradually, 
and the normal sighting will change gradually, necessitating a change 
in sight adjustment. The target shot can easily keep track of such 
changes, but the hunter who cleans his repeating rifle from the muzzle 
should occasionally target his rifle so as to keep track of the changes 
and have his arm always correctly sighted. 

I want to call particular attention to Group No. 7 in the above tabu- 
lation. I had at the range on the day on which these experiments were 



' JIM:', 



Fig. no 
Group No. 7. Ten shots at too yards, muzzle rest. .30-40 Winchester single- 
shot rifle. Telescope sight. Winchester 220-grain soft-point, factory ammuni- 
tion. Fired from the rifle after the muzzle had been deformed. Group meas- 
ures 1.33 inches. Mean absolute deviation .486 inch. 

conducted a box of old Winchester, 220-grain, soft-point, factory 
ammunition that was purchased seven years before in a gun store in 
Philadelphia. Since then that box had travelled all over British Co- 
lumbia on a pack horse, went to the Philippines and stayed there two 
years in the tropical heat and dampness, and came back and has been 
kicking around my workshop in various localities in the United States 
ever since. It occurred to me that it would be interesting to see what 
it would do, as the test would represent the accuracy that a hunter 
could expect from an old muzzle-worn rifle and the kind of ammuni- 
tion he would probably get in some little backwood settlement store. 
The results were most surprising. The actual target is shown here- 
with full size (Fig. no). It is certainly a triumph for the American 



452 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

rifle and ammunition, especially when it is considered that the rifle 
it was made with is an ordinary stock model and cost the writer the 
sum of $15 without sights. It will be noticed that in this test five of 
the shells on being fired split at the neck. This is almost always the 
case with very old ammunition where the bullet is not crimped in the 
shell, but is retained in the shell by originally having the shell con- 
siderably smaller than the bullet and then forcing the bullet in in 
loading, as was done with this particular ammunition in loading at 
that particular time. The brass at the neck is thus under considerable 
tension all the time, and after two or three years it gets "tired" and 
when some unusual strain comes it breaks. All government ammuni- 
tion now has the bullet crimped into the shell instead of having it 
pressed into a much smaller shell to hold it tight and waterproof. 

The rifle with which these tests were made has been in my pos- 
session since the spring of 1906. It has been fired many thousands 
of rounds with all kinds of ammunition. On account of its accuracy 
it has been one of the principal testing rifles, and many experiments 
have been conducted with it. The barrel is one of those that one 
gets by accident once in a lifetime. After all this use I can see no 
wear in the barrel at all, and the rifle is just as good as the day it 
was purchased. After this experiment the barrel was cut off to 27 
inches and the. muzzle trued up. If anything, shortening the barrel 
these three inches increased the accuracv. 



PART II 
PRACTICAL RIFLE SHOOTING 



CHAPTER XXIII 
THE A B C OF MARKSMANSHIP 

RIFLE shooting is almost entirely a matter of intelligent practice. 
Practice alone, without head work, will not get one very far. 
To illustrate, take the case of the man who made the highest score 
in the course in rifle shooting of the 10,000 men attending the Platts- 
burg training camp of 191 6. He was a man of about thirty years 
of age, and had never fired a rifle before in his life. He had only 
about four days of preliminary instruction, perhaps two hours a day, 
before going on the range, but he stated that he paid particular atten- 
tion to the instructions of his officers, and tried to follow them as 
closely as possible. On the other hand, in my work in the Army I 
often come across men of a rather low order of intelligence whom 
no amount of practice will teach to shoot, chiefly because they have 
never learned how to use their brains. Any man of ordinary intelli- 
gence, who is not physically handicapped, can become a good shot. 
To become an expert shot requires both a good body and a good 
brain. Most persons have the idea that eyesight is the important 
factor. Fair eyesight is of course essential, and may be obtained 
either naturally or by the aid of well-fitted glasses. 

There are five essentials which must be attained in order that one 
may be able to shoot accurately. All instruction in rifle shooting is 
aimed at perfecting one's knowledge and execution of these five essen- 
tials. These are as follows : 

1. Aiming. One must be able to aim consistently, aiming each 
shot exactly the same. This requires the training of the eye in the 
correct alignment of the sights and target until the view or picture 
that they form becomes so indelibly impressed upon the retina of the 
eye that whenever the aim is the least bit incorrect it will be noticed 
at once. 

2. Holding. One must be able to hold the rifle steadily in the 
various firing positions. First, a good, well-balanced position must 
be learned, and then this must be practiced until it becomes perfectly 
natural, and one acquires steadiness in it. Usually this takes longer 
to learn than the other essentials. 

455 



456 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

3. Trigger squeeze. It matters little how accurately one aims, and 
how steadily one holds, if, just as the rifle is discharged, one gives a 
convulsive jerk to the trigger which deranges both aim and hold. 
The trigger must be squeezed so that the rifle is not disturbed, does 
not move a particle, before the recoil comes. 

4. Calling the shot. Literally calling to the coach the exact spot 
where one's sights were aligned on the target at the instant that the 
rifle went off. Of course one tries to hold steadily, but absolute 
steadiness is beyond the ability of most riflemen. The sights bob 
around a little with the best of us. We must catch with our eye the 
exact place on the target where the sights were aligned at the instant 
that the recoil blots out clear vision. This spot is where we expect 
the shot to strike. If the shot does not strike close to the point of call it 
shows that there is something the matter with either rifle, ammunition, 
or sight adjustment. If one has a good rifle and ammunition it indi- 
cates that a change in the sight adjustment is necessary. 

5. Sight adjustment. The sights of the rifle must be adjusted so 
that the bullet will strike close to where one aims. Owing to factors 
which will be discussed later, almost all men require slightly different 
sight adjustment. Thus a rifle sighted in by one man is by no means 
correctly sighted for others, and rifles sighted in at the factory are 
never more than approximately correct. One must be able to' adjust 
his sights so that the bullet will strike where his rifle is aimed ; that 
is, where the shot was called. 

Finally, one must learn to co-ordinate all these five essentials. He 
must learn to aim accurately, and at the same time hold the rifle 
steadily. While he is doing this he must be gradually increasing the 
pressure on the trigger, so that when the aim seems best, and the hold 
the steadiest, he can squeeze on the trigger the last ounce or so of 
pressure which will discharge the rifle. And while doing this he must 
not forget to catch the point where the sights were aligned at the 
instant that the rifle goes off. He must learn to concentrate his mind, 
and every bit of his will power on doing these four things, and doing 
them perfectly. 

The secrets of good shooting are: 

1. Know your rifle. Get a good rifle and stick to it. Do not be 
changing your rifle all the time. Never change to a new arm until 
you know the old one as perfectly as it is possible to know it. There 
is a very true saying, " Beware of the man with one rifle." 

2. Pay the closest attention to every little detail. 



THE A B C OF MARKSMANSHIP 457 

3. Be careful. Lots of good scores are spoiled, and lots of game 
escapes, through carelessness alone. 

4. Be accurate. You are handling an instrument of precision, but 
it will not avail you if you be not accurate yourself. 

5. Don't get excited. An excited man cannot hold a rifle steadily, 
nor will his aim be accurate. Excitement usually comes from a lack 
of confidence ; that is, from a lack of practice. 

6. Go slow. Especially at first, go slow. Many men who have 
been shooting for years will never make really good shots because 
they do things so fast, or so impulsively, that they do not get the 
required steadiness or accuracy. Do not attempt rapid fire until you 
have mastered the slow fire. Skill in slow fire never makes a man a 
poor rapid-fire shot ; it is lack of practice in rapid fire. 

Some men soon acquire a remarkable ability to shoot the rifle, but 
it must be remembered that to be really expert one must have his 
lessons so drilled into him that even when excited he will still continue 
to shoot well. This means that one must practice until shooting be- 
comes second nature before he can really call himself expert. In 
every case where anything important is at stake in rifle shooting there 
will be a certain amount of excitement, physical exertion, and neces- 
sity for speed. Let the novice not think that because he has made a 
score which equals the record he is an expert. Let him try to dupli- 
cate his work after a hard climb up a steep mountain when a moun- 
tain sheep suddenly leaps up and is about to disappear over a ledge. 
Or again, on the battlefield, when he must beat the other fellow to it 
with a perfectly placed bullet or go under. Most beginners can be- 
come good shots after several weeks of daily intelligent practice. 
To. become a real expert requires years of practice, study, and ex- 
perience. If it were not so the game would not be worth the candle. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
AIMING 

BY aiming we mean the accurate pointing of the rifle at the bull's-eye, 
or at the game, or enemy we wish to hit. Aiming consists in 
getting the rear sight, the front sight, and the object we wish to hit 
all in the same line. It is a delicate operation, and requires lots of 
care and attention to the little details. With some men it is first nec- 
essary that the eye be educated to seeing finely and accurately. It is 
more like threading a needle than driving a nail. 

At the start one should appreciate the necessity of care and ac- 
curacy in the alignment of the front and rear sights. Suppose these 
sights are placed 24 inches apart, then an error or Moo inch in aligning 
them will cause a deviation in where the bullet strikes of I inch at 
100 yards, 2 inches at 200 yards, 5 inches at 500 yards, and so on. 
It is only an eye well trained to see and appreciate small distances 
that can see an error as small as Moo inch. The untrained man will 
hardly appreciate an error of twice this size, which would mean an 
error of four inches at 200 yards. The methods of aligning open and 
peep sights are slightly different and will be described separately. 



MM 




Fig. 112 Fig. in 

Alignment of open sights in aiming Alignment of open rear, and ivory or 
at a target gold bead front sight when aiming at 

game 

The best form of open sight is one which has a " U " shaped notch. 
In bringing such sights into line the top of the front sight should 
appear in the middle of the " U," and also with its top surface just 
even with the top of the U notch, as shown in Figs. 11 1 and 112. 
Fig. 113 shows some of the more common errors of aligning, and the 
results which will ensue. A very common error is the drawing of 
the front sight down too fine in the notch. If the sights are adjusted 

458 



AIMING 



459 



to strike center when the front sight is held at the standard height, 
this drawing fine will result in a low shot. If the rifleman, through 
a misconception, adjusts his sights so as to strike center when the 
front sight is drawn down fine in the notch, his shots will be apt to 
string up and down on the target, and he will get many misses under 





BULLET STRIKES LOW 



BULLET STRIKES HIGH 





BULLET STRIKES TO LETT 



BULLET STRIKES TO RIGHT 




RIFLE LEANED OR CANTED TO Rl&HT. 
BULLET STRIKES LOW, AND A LITTLE Rl&HT. 

Fig. 113 
Showing errors of aim, and the result 

and over, particularly in changes of light. One can see very well to 
measure the correct amount of front sight seen in the notch by 
lining the top surface up with the top of the " U," but if he tries to 
draw fine it will always be merely an estimate as to whether he has 
drawn down fine enough, or too fine, or not fine enough. Estimation 
is, just another word for guess-work. 

With the peep sight one should see the top of the front sight in 
the center of the peep-hole or aperture. This is the only correct 



460 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



method. An aperture always has more light at its center than near 
the edges, also an aperture acts as an orthoptic, and clears the vision 
of things seen through its center, making all seem in perfect focus. 
Then too, the human eye has a natural aptitude for centering objects, 
and if allowed to exercise this aptitude it can place the top of that 
front sight extremely accurately in the middle of the peep-hole. In 
learning to align peep sights too much time should not be devoted to 
practicing the perfect centering of the tip of the front sight in the 
center of the aperture, because it teaches a bad fault, that of paying 
too much attention to the peep sight. Many men complain that they 
cannot use the peep sight. This is entirely because they pay too 





A B 

Fig. 114 
Alignment of peep sights in aiming 
A — Vernier target peep sight, or Lyman peep with detachable cup disc. 
B — Lyman peep sight aligned on game. 

much attention to the peep sight ; too much attention to centering. 
Do not look at the peep sight, look through it. Pay attention only to 
the front sight. Aim as though you were aiming a shotgun which 
had but one sight at the muzzle. The eye will soon learn to center 
the front sight in the peep, and will do it accurately and the same 
each time without burdening the mind with it. This method also gives 
better vision, as no attempt is made to focus on the rear sight. No 
matter how much the peep sight blurrs it will still be accurate, as the 
eye will pick out the center of the blurr. Fig. 1 14 shows the method 
of aligning peep sights. 

In shooting at a bull's-eye target, with either open or peep sights, 
the line of aim should strike the target slightly below the bull's-eye. 



AIMING 461 

That is to say, the top of the front sight should be held slightly be- 
low the bull's-eye so that a small strip of the white target is seen 
between the top of the front sight and the bottom of the bull's-eye. 
The reason for this is that both the front sight and bull's-eye are black, 
and if, in aiming, the front sight were allowed or made to touch the 
bull's-eye, or effort was made to aim at the center of the bull's-eye, 
the front sight and bull's-eye would blend, and at the distance one 
could not see whether the front sight was being held in line with the 
center, the top, or the bottom of the bull. Experience has shown that 
if one attempts to " touch " the bull's-eye with the front sight, the 
shots will string up and down on the target. So instead we aim 
slightly below the bull, and the sights are so adjusted that when aim 
is taken thus the rifle will shoot a trifle high, and the bullet will strike 
the center of the bull. In aligning the sights thus, care must be 
taken always to see the same amount of white target between the top of 
the front sight and the bottom of the bull's-eye. After a little bit one 
becomes accustomed to aiming thus, and can always take just about 
the same amount of white. 

In shooting at game or at an enemy a slightly different alignment 
fs advisable. In such cases it is best to hold the alignment just where 
it is desired the shot should strike. That is, hold the top of the front 
sight just touching the point you wish to strike. The sights are then 
so adjusted that the bullet hits the exact point of aim. Fig. 114-B 
shows the Lyman peep sight aligned on the shoulder of a goat. 

These cuts should be studied carefully, and one should repeatedly 
aim the rifle from a rest until he becomes thoroughly accustomed to 
the appearance of correctly aligned sights. The object is so thor- 
oughly to impress on the retina of the eye the " picture " of the sights 
and target correctly aligned that the memory of it will persist, and if, 
when one aims, there is any error present, that error will stand out 
and make itself at once manifest. Accurate aiming consists simply in 
being able to reproduce exactly the same each time the picture of the 
two sights and the target. 

It is absolutely essential for accurate aiming that the eye be held 
steadily in the line of sight. If the eye " bobs " around in and out 
of the correct line, the sights and target can never be lined up per- 
fectly. For this reason it is always necessary to press the cheek hard 
against the side of the butt-stock, just in rear of the comb, so that 
the eye is exactly in the line of sight. One soon learns the exact spot 
on the stock to press against, and can thus catch the aim very quickly. 



462 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



Here is where a well-fitting stock pays for itself, placing the cheek 
and eye in exactly the correct position without any strain. Be care- 
ful not to crane the head over the stock, because the rise of the rifle 
in recoil would probably give one a severe thump in the face. If the 
cheek be tightly pressed against the side, the head moves back with 
the recoil, and moreover the check itself helps considerably in the 
steady holding of the rifle. 

THE AIMING BAR 

The aiming bar is a device used to teach the recruit the correct 
method of aligning the sights and target. It is very easily made, and 




Fig. 115 
Aiming bar 

is quite useful in instructing the novice. Procure a "2x4"; that 
is, a piece of wood 2 inches by 4 inches by 10 to 14 feet long. Con- 
struct legs for this like a saw-horse, so that the upper surface (2-inch 
side) will be about 42 inches above the ground or floor, legs to come 
about 2 feet from the ends of the " 2 x 4." Procure some sheet metal 
(tin, galvanized iron, or brass) and nail a small plate on either end 
of the bar, with a portion about 2 inches wide by 3 inches high ex- 
tending above the bar as shown in Fig. 115. The plate at the end 



AIMING 463 

of the bar towards the eye is to have a very small peep-hole drilled 
in its center ; that is, in the center of the rectangular portion extending 
above the bar. This hole should be just a trifle larger than a pin 
hole. The plate at the other end has a small paper target pasted 
on it, so that the target faces inward, and can be seen when the eye 
is applied to the peep-hole on the other plate. Now make two trans- 
verse saw-cuts with a thin saw about i-inch deep on the upper surface 
of the bar, the first cut to be the same distance in front of the peep- 
hole plate that the rear sight on the rifle normally is in front of the 
eye in aiming. The other saw-cut is located a distance in front of 
the first equal to the sight radius; that is, the distance between the 
front and rear sights on the rifle. Cut out of the sheet metal two 
pieces exactly like the sights of the rifle ; that is, so that they will 
appear the same shape and size as the sights when viewed from the 
rear. Leave a broad base to each so that they can be inserted in the 
saw-cuts. Place these sights in the saw'-cuts, lightly securing them 
with small wedges if necessary. Place the eye at the peep plate and 
look at the target. Move the sights in the saw-cuts until they and 
the target appear in perfect alignment, and practically duplicate the 
view as seen through the sights on a rifle when aiming. It will be 
noticed that the peep plate at the rear end of the bar keeps the eye 
in the correct line of sight, so that the sights and target can be seen 
only in perfect alignment. The bar is to be set up so that the eye-end 
projects over the top of a steady table. The recruit sits down in a 
chair drawn up to the table so that he faces the peep plate, closes his 
fists, and placing one on top of the other, rests his" chin in the up- 
permost fist so that his eye comes close to the peep-hole. He then 
looks through the peep hole and sees the sights correctly aligned. 
The fists keep the eye steady in the correct position to see through 
the peep. The instructor points out to him the correct alignment, 
and keeps the recruit at it until he has impressed on the retina of his 
eye a memory of the picture of the sights and target as they should 
appear. Afterwards the instructor may move either or both of the 
sights slightly so as to show to the recruit the various errors of aim. 
This device is excellent for teaching men all the principles of aiming, 
as they can comprehend the salient features very readily, and it is 
impossible for them to see the sights aligned other than as the in- 
structor wishes. 



464 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



AN AIMING EXERCISE 

Construct the sides only of a wood box about 12 inches wide, 16 
inches long, and 9 inches high, as shown in Fig. 116. On top of 
either end cut notches as shown, so that the forearm and barrel of 
the rifle can be placed therein and lightly secured with wooden 
wedges. Box should be so made that when it is placed on top of a 
table the rifle will rest secure in it, and the barrel of the rifle will 





Fig. 116 
Rifle rest box, and cardboard disc for aiming exercise 

be approximately horizontal, with line of sight about 12 inches above 
the surface of the table. Set up a solid table with box and rifle 
on it at one end of a room. On the opposite wall of the room, in 
a well-lighted position, pin up a sheet of plain paper (wrapping paper) 
about 2 feet square, so that the rifle is sighted approximately near 
the center of the sheet. Provide a circular disc of white cardboard 
(see Fig. 116) about 3 inches in diameter, fastened on the end of a 
stick about 8 inches long. Paint a small bull's-eye in the center of 
the cardboard disc, and in the center of the bull's-eye make a pin 
hole. 

The rifleman sits at the table behind the rifle, places his closed fists 
on the table, one on top of the other, chin resting in upper fist, so that 



AIMING 465 

his eye comes in the line of sight of the rifle. The rifle must not be 
touched by the cheek or hands, or it will be thrown out of alignment. 
The fists assist in keeping the eye steadily in the line of sight. 

The rifleman then looks through the sights of the rifle at the sheet 
of paper on the opposite wall. An assistant alongside the sheet holds 
the bull's-eye disc against the sheet so that it appears like a target 
against the sheet background. Aiming through the sights, the rifle- 
man directs the assistant to raise, lower, move to the right or left, 
the bull's-eye disc until it appears absolutely correct in the line of 
sight, the rifle remaining immovable throughout the whole test. When 
everything appears correct, he orders the assistant to " mark it." The 
assistant, holding the bull's-eye disc steadily against the paper, inserts 
a pin or sharp pencil point through the small hole in the center of 
the bull's-eye, making a mark or dot on the sheet of paper, and then 
removes the disc from its position. This is repeated any desired 
number of times, the rifleman being careful not to disturb the rifle, 
and it results in a number of small dots on the sheet, or a " group " 
of dots. The dispersion of this group indicates the accuracy of aim. 

The same sheet of paper may be used for a large number of trials, 
care being taken to move the rifle slightly between each series so that 
the group will not come in exactly the same place. 

This exercise is in general use in the Army in teaching men to aim, 
and particularly to determine if, after preliminary explanation and 
instruction, they know how to aim, and if they take exactly the same 
aim each time. It may also be used to determine the accuracy of 
aim with a certain type of sight, or two rifles equipped with different 
types of sights may thus be tested for the purpose of determining the 
relative accuracy of aim with each type. If a standard distance be- 
tween rifle and sheet of paper be established, the sheets containing 
groups can be kept as a record of the relative accuracy of a large 
number of sights of various types. By using a naturally painted 
picture of an animal in its native surroundings instead of the bull's-eye 
disc, and a pin hole through the animal's heart, one can determine the 
accuracy of aim, and the suitability of a certain sight in game shoot- 
ing. In fact, this exercise has many possibilities connected with it. 

Note. To obtain comparative results a distance of at least 30 feet is required 
between rifle and sbeet of paper, as at less distances a good marksman, using 
almost any sigbt, sbould place almost all the dots in the same spot. 



CHAPTER XXV 
HOLDING AND THE FIRING POSITIONS 

THE greatest difficulty that the novice will encounter at the start 
of his rifle practice will be the steady holding of his rifle. 
When he first attempts it, he will tremble and shake, the rifle will bob 
all around so that it will seem almost impossible to hold the line of 
sight on the target long enough to pull the trigger. The novice should 
not permit himself to become discouraged at the start. It should be 
remembered that whenever one performs an unfamiliar movement or 
exertion he will be unsteady and will tremble. The muscles are not 
educated or trained for that particular act, and the unaccustomed 
strain causes trouble and makes the nice co-ordination necessary for 
a finished movement impossible. The remedy is to practice the vari- 
ous positions until one becomes thoroughly accustomed to them, and 
until the muscles are trained and hardened for use in that particular 
manner. 

Learning a good position is very necessary at the start. No one 
can hold steadily in an awkward, cramped position. Particular at- 
tention should be paid to the balance. For example, one can stand 
erect, feet slightly apart, body equally balanced, for a considerable 
time practically motionless. But let him lean a little forward so as 
to destroy the balance, and every muscle is put to a strain. In a few 
seconds he will begin to sway, shake, and tremble. Therefore in all 
positions one should take care to maintain a balance, and see that 
no muscle or portion of the body is under strain. Of course certain 
exertions, such as holding the rifle up to the shoulder, may be in 
the nature of a strain at first, but through practice soon become an 
exercise that can be easily performed. 

There are four positions which are prescribed for military rifle 
shooting — the standing, sitting, kneeling, and prone. The sportsman 
will do most of his firing in the standing position, but occasionally 
will find it advantageous or necessary to assume one of the other po- 
sitions. In these positions the rifle may be held, either without any 
artificial support, that is, " off-hand," or it may be rested on some 
object, such as the crest of an intrenchment, a sand-bag, a log, a rock, 

466 



HOLDING AND FIRING POSITIONS 467 

against a tree, or the side of a building. Advantage can always be 
taken of an object to rest the rifle on in combat firing, in warfare, 
and in hunting, but in competitive rifle shooting, and in the various 
military rifle practice courses, artificial rests are not permitted unless 
specially prescribed. The novice should always first learn to hold the 
rifle offhand, and we will therefore first consider these four prescribed 
positions with the rifle held without artificial support. 

Attention is particularly invited to the illustrations of the various 
positions, which have been posed with great care. They show the 
positions exactly as they are assumed by practically every rifleman of 
prominence in the United States. This lesson of experience should not 
be disregarded. Imitate the positions as closely as you can. Pay at- 
tention to all the little details. Remember that it is by close attention 
to the little details, and by practice and headwork alone, that you will 
learn to excel with the rifle. 

THE STANDING POSITION 

This is a very important position to the sportsman as it is the posi- 
tion in which he will do 90 per cent, of his firing at game. It has 
fallen into disuse to a certain extent in military rifle shooting, but 
nevertheless it is important that it should be well learned by every 
soldier as it will be often necessary to use it in close-range firing, in 
brush fighting, in surprises, at night, in fighting in high grass, and in 
clearing out trenches. It is the position for quick work at short range, 
and for snap shooting. It is not a steady position for long range, and 
generally will not be used for shooting at ranges over 200 yards, nor 
when time permits a steadier position to be assumed. It is the hardest 
position of all to excel in, but a good rifleman should be able to hit 
his man, or a big game animal, every time at 200 yards when he is not 
unsteady from fatigue or recent exertion. 

Face to the right at an angle of about 55 degrees from the target 
(see illustration), with the feet about 12 inches apart, weight of the 
body resting equally on each foot, body erect and well balanced. Raise 
the rifle to the aiming position, pointing it as nearly as possible at the 
target as you do so. As you place the rifle to the shoulder lean a very 
little backward, just enough to keep that nice balance which raising and 
extending the rifle out in front of you has momentarily destroyed. 
Do not lean forward at all as the trap shooter does, and do not lean 
back too much. Study the illustration. The butt of the rifle is as 
nearly in the hollow of the shoulder as the conformation of the rifle- 



468 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 




Fig. 117 

Standing position, half-arm extension. The best standing position when rapid 

fire is necessary, and the correct offhand position far the sportsman 

man will permit. With most men it will rest partly in the hollow of the 
shoulder and partly on the deltoid muscle of the right upper arm. 
Grasp the small of the stock firmly with the right hand, which should 
do more than two-thirds of the work of holding the rifle up and press- 
ing it against the shoulder. Place the tip of the fore finger against 
the trigger so that the trigger rests in the first joint of the finger. The 
left hand grasps the forearm at a point from 10 to 14 inches in front 
of the trigger guard, depending upon the length of arms and breadth 
of shoulders. The forearm should rest well down in the palm of the 
left hand, not up on the fingers, and the fingers should be curled over 
the forearm, and should grasp firmly but without effort. The left 
elbow should be almost under the rifle, never way off to the left which 
is a very common fault. If the left elbow cannot easily be held almost 



HOLDING AND FIRING POSITIONS 469 

under the rifle it is usually a sign that one is facing too much towards 
the target, face a little bit more to the right. The left hand, grasping 
in this manner, is to do almost all of the steadying and directing of 
the rifle, and but very little of the supporting of it. 

The right elbow should be raised so that the right upper arm is a 
little above the horizontal, and so that the head can be moved to the 
right to bring the eye into the line of sight, and the cheek will rest 
firmly, squarely, and comfortably against the left side of the butt-stock. 
The cheek presses against the stock, and assists quite a little in hold- 
ing the rifle steady. By thus pressing the cheek to the right against 
the stock the right eye is forced into, and held steadily in the line of 
sight. Under no circumstances should the head be craned over the 
butt-stock to get the eye into the line of sight, as the rifle will jump up 
slightly when it recoils, and the nose or cheek will receive a severe 
blow. If the cheek be pressed against the stock as directed, the whole 
head, neck, and shoulders will move backward with the recoil, and the 
kick will not be felt. 

Holding the rifle thus, take up all the creep in the trigger, and place 
on it as much finger pressure as you dare, but without discharging the 
rifle. Take a deep breath and let it out until the lungs are once more 
normal, get the eye and the two sights exactly in alignment, and hold- 
ing them thus bring the alignment up on to the target, trying to hold it 
steadily just below the bull's-eye. Very few men will be able to hold 
the sights steadily below the bull's-eye, but the sights will seem to bob 
and wander all over the target. With considerable practice one gets 
to be able to restrict the wobble to the vicinity of the bull's-eye. Now 
watch carefully, and try to" press the last final ounce on the trigger just 
as the front sight seems to pass under the bull's-eye in one of its 
gyrations. Receive the recoil by letting the whole body sway backward 
on the hips, and the recoil will not be felt. Do not exert yourself in 
trying to hold the butt hard against the shoulder to take the recoil. It 
should only be held snugly, as any undue effort will produce tremor. 
To avoid an unpleasant kick the novice should pay attention to pressing 
the cheek against the side of the stock, should keep his right thumb 
on the right side of the rifle, or on top of the tang so that it will not 
strike him in the mouth, should grasp the upper portion of the forearm 
firmly with the fingers of the left hand, and should be sure that the 
butt-plate is far enough in the hollow of the shoulder so that it will 
not slip out when the recoil comes. 

In rapid fire in the standing position, do not take the butt of the 



470 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

rifle from the shoulder between shots, but let go of the small of the 
stock with the right hand, holding the rifle hard against the shoulder 
and steadily in place with the left hand. With a bolt-action rifle, grasp 
the bolt handle with the right hand, and pull the bolt back hard and 
quick, moving the face slightly to the left to avoid contact with the 
bolt. Slam the bolt shut again, regrasp the small of the stock with 
the right hand, and release the hard pulling back with the left hand. 
At once take up the safety pull of the trigger with the right forefinger, 
and start the new aim. Do not be afraid to slam the bolt open and 
shut hard and fast. You cannot injure the bolt in this manner to save 
your life, and it makes the movement much quicker and surer, and 
insures against jams through failure completely to function the bolt. 

To operate a lever-action rifle in rapid fire, proceed exactly the same 
as regards the left hand. The three last fingers of the right hand 
being inside the finger lever, let go the thumb grasp of the right thumb 
over the small of the stock, move the trigger finger a little forward in 
the trigger guard, and quickly throw down the lever to its fullest ex- 
tent of travel. At once pull the lever smartly back against the grip, 
regrasp with the right thumb over the small of the stock, and start 
the pressure on the trigger with the forefinger, let up on the back pres- 
sure of the left hand, grasp hard and pull back with the right hand, 
and start the new aim. 

The sportsman and the military rifleman should avoid the various 
standing positions with the left elbow against the side or hip, and with 
the rifle balanced on the finger tips, etc. These positions are designed 
solely for making big scores on the bull's-eye target in slow fire, as in 
Schuetzen contests. It is impossible to assume them quickly for snap 
shooting, or to use them for rapid magazine fire. They are of no use 
in the field, and have no place in either practical or military rifle shoot- 
ing. The position described may be called the " hunter's position," 
and is the only one suitable for quick work and for moving objects. 

THE SITTING POSITION 

This is a very steady position, and an excellent one for rapid fire, 
and for shooting down hill. It is quickly assumed, and where one is 
not called upon for a very quick snap shot it would be well to assume 
it wherever possible, that is where vegetation, etc., does not prohibit, 
and where the ground does not slope upward. 

Sit down, facing to the right at an angle of about 35 degrees from 
the target. The left heel should be so placed that the left knee and 



HOLDING AND FIRING POSITIONS 



471 



thigh almost face the target, and the right heel so that when the left 
elbow is placed on the left knee the right knee comes in the correct 
place to rest the right elbow on easily. Both heels should rest in small 
holes in the ground, or against some slight irregularity on the ground, 




The standard sitting position. There should be slight holes in the ground in 

which to rest the heels 

so that not only will they not slip, but will not have any feeling that 
they might possibly slip. The heels must feel secure, or the position 
will not be very steady. A little practice will show one just how far 
the heels should be extended to the front, and how much the knees 
should be bent. The right knee should be slightly higher than the left. 
In aiming, first adjust the gun-sling, and use it as described under 
the prone position. It is a great help to steady holding. The elbows 
must be placed on the knees, and if the knees are not in just the right 



472 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



position for this it shows that something is wrong with the position. 
If the point of the elbow be allowed to extend about an inch beyond 
the knee cap, a position will usually be found in which the elbow seems 
to stick naturally tight to the knee. 

To aim a little to the right or left, shift the buttocks on the ground ; 
to aim higher draw the feet in, thus raising the knees. 




Fig. 119 
Sitting position, legs crossed. A good position when the buttocks can be 
placed in a slight depression, getting the feet a trifle higher than the but- 
tocks. 

A similar position may be assumed with the legs crossed just above 
the ankles. This will be found advantageous if secure holes cannot 
be found or made for the heels. Also the legs may be crossed and the 
legs separated, each calf resting on the inside of the opposite foot, 
tailor fashion. This latter position is very steady, but it is hard for 
most men to assume it unless the ground slopes upward slightly, or 



HOLDING AND FIRING POSITIONS 



473 



unless one can find a slight hole or depression to sit in, thus elevating 
the feet slightly above the buttocks, and raising the knees. If ground 
suitable for this variation of the sitting position can be obtained, it is 
almost as steady as the prone position. 



THE KNEELING TOSITION 



This position can be very quickly assumed, and it can often be used 
with advantage as it is steadier than the standing position, and in a 




Fig. 120 
The standard kneeling position 

majority of cases it raises the rifle to the height necessary to see over 
tall grass or inequalities in the ground. Whether the rifleman can 
assume it successfully enough to be able to do good work in it depends 
upon whether or not his right knee is limber enough to permit him to 
sit comfortably on the right heel. As a rule I do not favor this posi- 



474 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

tion very much as it is not as steady as the sitting position, and only 
slightly steadier than the standing position. Often, and particularly 
in a stiff breeze, it is very difficult to control a slight horizontal sway- 
ing of the rifle. 

Half face to the right, carry the right toe about a foot to the left 
rear of the left heel, kneel on the right knee, sitting back on the right 
heel. Adjust the gun-sling for firing as explained for the prone posi- 
tion. Aim with the left elbow resting on the point of the left knee, 
the point of the elbow a little beyond the knee cap, and the knee point- 
ing towards the target. Hold the right elbow a little farther to the 
front than in the other positions. Be sure that the butt of the rifle is 
well into the hollow of the shoulder, as there is a tendency to hold it 
too far out on the right upper arm in this position. Holding the butt 
out on the upper arm not only makes one crane the head over the stock 
in aiming, thus increasing the probability of a blow on the mouth or 
nose in recoil, but also the recoil is apt to turn one half-way around, 
and make rapid firing difficult or slow. Study the illustration of this 
position very carefully. (See Fig. 120.) 

The instep of the right foot may be rested flat on the ground, the 
buttocks coming on the lower part of the heel; or by resting the right 
side of the foot on the ground, toe pointing to the front, one may sit 
very steadily on the left side of the right foot. These positions can 
be assumed only by very limber men, but they make the position quite a 
little steadier. 

Remember to lean well forward, and always to rest the left elbow 
on the knee, as unless this elbow is so rested the position is no steadier 
than the standing position. 

THE PRONE POSITION 

This is the most important of all the positions to the military rifleman, 
and it should also be completely mastered by the sportsman, as it is the 
steadiest of all the offhand positions. It is the position in which all 
the long-range world's records have been made. It is also the easiest 
position for one to learn to excel in, as any one with good physique 
can, under a skilled instructor, learn to hold his rifle practically immo- 
bile in a very few days. Yet, like all other positions, it takes practice 
to learn it, particularly so because the posture is so strange, and it is 
intensely uncomfortable when first assumed. But unlike the other 
positions it does not differ in the slightest with the conformation of 
the man. There is but one way to assume it. One cannot depart from 



HOLDING AND FIRING POSITIONS 



475 



the standard position in the slightest -without sacrificing steadiness. 
The position must be carefully studied by the novice, and all the little 
details perfected, as every one of them are essential. The use of the 
gun-sling exactly as described is absolutely necessary, and the details 
of its adjustment and use are therefore gone into as a part of this 
position. The three illustrations herewith, illustrating the prone posi- 
tion, should be studied most carefully. 





0= i 

(3 



CLAW HOOK 



OtT-All.4 0<> kACIMO 



Fig. 121 



Gun-sling for sporting rifle — Whelen pattern. The swivels are the type used for 
the butt swivel on the Winchester Model 1895 musket 

We shall be obliged to digress here a little and describe the gun-sling. 
The military gun-sling on the Model 1903 rifle is constructed with a 
view to its use for both carrying the rifle, and as an aid to steady hold- 
ing. All gun-slings should be modelled on about the same plan. 
Those usually seen on sporting rifles are absolutely worthless for any- 
thing except slinging the rifle over the shoulder, and not very good for 
that. Some years ago I designed a gun-sling for sporting use, which 
is illustrated in Fig. 121. The cut rather fully describes it. It has 
the loop for firing, which is intended to be adjusted to fit the owner 
of the rifle, and a tail piece to lengthen out for either firing or carrying 
the rifle. It has swivels which do not turn and get the sling tangled 
up all the time, neither do they rattle in the presence of game, as almost 
all sporting rifle gun-slings do. 

The sporting rifle manufacturers almost invariably place the swivels 
incorrectly. The front swivel should be placed out well towards the 



476 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

end of the forearm, not near its center. On a tubular magazine re- 
peater, like the Winchester, the front swivel can be attached to the 
metal forearm tip. The butt swivel should be placed on the under side 
of the butt stock, about 2Y2 inches from the toe of the butt-plate, not 
half-way between the toe and the guard as is usually done. 

The following is the proper method of adjusting the military gun- 
sling as provided for the Model 1903 rifle, and also sufficiently de- 

VHSHHHHBB 




Fig. 122 
Springfield sportng rifle with Whelen gun-sling adjusted for firing 

scribes the adjustment of my own model sling. The two principal 
parts of the gun-sling are the long strap, which forms the loop ; and 
the short strap, which extends from the end of the loop down through 
the butt swivel, and back under the barrel, hooking into the long strap. 
For military drill and ordinary carrying, the short strap is kept hooked 
up tight, so that the entire sling is taut between the two sling swivels. 
When thus adjusted the long strap should be hooked up so that a loop 
is formed which extends from the lower band swivel (forearm swivel) 
down to a point opposite or immediately under the comb of the stock; 
that is, the loop, when pulled tight under and parallel to the stock, 
should extend as far back as the comb of the stock. This is the right 
length loop for the average man with the Model 1903 rifle. (W r ith 
sporting rifles this measurement will not always be correct, and the 
sling should be tested in the prone position for correct length of loop.) 
Stout men, or those having very short arms, need a loop adjustment an 
inch or two longer than this. It is a mistake to have the loop too 
long, as the pressure which holds the rifle steady cannot be exerted 
with a long, loose sling. The sling is to be habitually kept hooked up 
taut, with the loop adjusted to this length, except for firing, and when 
it is desired to sling the rifle over the shoulder. 



HOLDING AND FIRING POSITIONS 



477 



To adjust the gun-sling for firing, unhook the short strap from the 
long strap, and stretch the sling out without altering the length of the 
loop (which should never be changed), and hook up the short strap 




Fig. 123 
Placing the sling on the arm 

on itself, placing the teeth of the hook through one of the pair of 
holes about 6 inches below the metal loop which connects the long and 
short straps. When the sling is adjusted to the arm, and the firing 
position assumed, the short strap should always be loose, without any 
tension. Tension here will cause the rifle to be canted, and the posi- 
tion to be unsteady. 

The loop of the sling is to be adjusted to the left upper arm above 



478 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

the swelling of the triceps muscle; that is, about an inch under the 
arm-pit. To keep the sling this high up on the arm it is sometimes 
necessary to sew a short piece of quarter-inch rope on the inside of 
the sleeve of the shirt or shooting blouse so as to form a ridge which 
will keep the sling from slipping down. Under no circumstances 
should the sling be allowed to slip down to a point just above the 
elbow. This is a very common fault seen among beginners. In fact, 
among the expert shots at the national matches it is always taken as the 
sign of the beginner. The sling must be kept high up on the upper* 
arm if the best results are to be derived from its use. 

It is best to place the sling on the left arm before lying down. 
With the rifle pointing to the front, barrel up, carry the left hand from 
the left of the rifle through between the rifle and the entire sling, and 
then back again through the loop (see Fig. 123) ; slip the loop high up 
around the left arm, and pull down one of the sling keepers to retain 
the loop in place on the arm. By placing the arm through the loop 
in this manner, when the firing position is assumed the flat of the strap, 
and not the edge, will bear against the left wrist. 

Now we come to the assuming of the prone position. Standing on 
the ground from which one is to fire, select a smooth, level place on 
which to lie, and estimate the spot where the right elbow will come 
when lying down. Place the heel of the boot on this spot and spin 
around several times on the heel, thus making a hole in the ground 
about an inch deep and three inches in diameter. This hole is for the 
right elbow to rest in when aiming. A hole is not absolutely necessary, 
but it adds to the security of the position, and is a help in rapid fire 
as it does away with any tendency of the right elbow to slip outward. 
A small hole for the left elbow also will help, but these holes must be 
in exactly the right place, or they are of more harm than good. The 
position must determine where the holes are to come, not the holes the 
position. 

Almost every novice makes the mistake of lying down facing the 
target. This is absolutely wrong, as also is facing only a little to the 
right. One should face a full 60 degrees to the right of the target 
when lying dozvn, and should spread the legs wide apart so as to per- 
mit the entire abdomen to rest flat on the ground (see Figs. 127 and 
128). With the sling around the left upper arm, carry the left hand 
up on the left side of the sling, and then grasp the forearm just in 
rear of the forearm sling swivel. The knuckle of the left forefinger 
should almost touch the lower band swivel (except for men with very 



HOLDING AND FIRING POSITIONS 



479 



short arms who will have to grasp the forearm farther to the rear). 
In this position the sling, starting from the forearm swivel, passes to 
the right of the left wrist, and then around the left upper arm. That 
portion of the sling between the loop and the butt swivel is loose. 
Place the left elbow in the hole in the ground made for it. Raise 



i 



• ' 

5 




Fig. 124 
The prone position. Getting into position with tight gun-sling 

the butt of the rifle to the shoulder and assume the firing position. 
Right here probably most" men will find it impossible to get the butt 
up to the shoulder — the sling seems too tight. Do not loosen the 
sling. Raise the right shoulder and roll over slightly on the left side. 
Now the butt can be shoved into the hollow of the shoulder with the 
right hand (see Fig. 124). Then roll back into the firing position, and 
the rifle will be found to be clamped in position pointing at the target. 
Please notice that this position will probably be intensely uncomfort- 
able to the recruit at first. He can hardly bear it for more than 15 or 
20 seconds at a time. It seems particularly to strain the left wrist. 
It must be persisted in, however, and not changed in the slightest. 
Three or four days' practice, half an hour a day, will overcome this, 
and after the first week one will be able to lie comfortably for long 
enough to fire 20 or more shots, slow fire. It is astonishing how soon 



480 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



one becomes accustomed to what seems at first an intensely 'uncom- 
fortable, unnatural position, and how naturally the old hand assumes 
this position. 

Now let us examine this firing position in detail. Pay particular 
attention, because all this is very important. The left elbow should be 




Fig. 125 
The prone position, right side, showing the correct method of using the gun-sling 

almost directly under the rifle. A perpendicular dropped from the 
left side of the forearm should strike the right side of the left elbow. 
The sling, starting from the forearm swivel, should pass to the right 
of the left wrist, and then around the upper portion of the left upper 
arm as before described. The loop should have about 50 pounds ten- 
sion placed on it by the left arm, and this tension should be as nearly 
equal for every shot as the rifleman can make it. The short strap 
should be loose without any tension on it. The forearm should rest 
well down in the palm of the left hand. Spread the fingers straight 
out, flattening the palm, and let the rifle rest on the flattened palm 
alone, moving the palm a little to one side or the other until the rear 
sight stands up straight without any cant or lean to the rifle. Now 
close the thumb and forefingers firmly over the top edge of the fore- 
arm, but so that they will not interfere with the line of sight. This 



HOLDING AND FIRING POSITIONS 



481 



is the proper hold for the left hand. If the rifle be held off the palm 
of the left hand, and be supported by the fingers, each joint and muscle 
of each finger will tremble slightly, and the position will be unsteady ; 
so too, if some muscle has to be constantly at work to overcome a 
tendency to cant. The theory of this position is that the rifle is sup- 
ported by the bones of the forearm, which are bound to the rifle and 




J. Ig,. J.^.^7 

Prone position, showing manner of using the gun-sling. View from left side 



to the ground by the sling and the weight of the body. There is thus 
one solid, firm support, and the muscles and joints, with all their 
tremors, are eliminated entirely. 

The right elbow should rest firmly on the ground, and if one has 
time a hole should be dug for it, but this hole must be in just the right 
place. Regard the two upper arms and the front of the chest as the 
three legs of a tripod. If these legs are too far apart, or too close 
together, the tripod will be unsteady. There is just one position for 
them. As a rule the novice has a tendency to spread the elbows too 
far apart, and to hug the ground too closely. The right hand grasps 
the small of the stock only lightly, right thumb on top of, and a little 
to the left of the upper tang, right forefinger on the trigger, other fin- 



482 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



gers grasping the small of the stock a little farther to the rear than in 
the other positions. Press the right cheek hard against the left side 
of the butt-stock, head a little farther forward than in the other firing 
positions. Don't worry about receiver sights or cocking pieces striking 




Fig. 127 
The prone position from above, showing the angle at which to lie, and the posi- 
tion of the legs 

the eye, because when the rifle recoils it is only going to come back 
about an inch if it is correctly held, but if the rifle is equipped with a 
peep sight on the tang one must be careful to keep the eye at least 2 
inches from it or there is liability of the eye being struck by the sight. 
The butt rests where the tendon of the pectoralis major and the deltoid 
muscle seem to join, which is a little below and to the right of the true 
hollow of the shoulder. The novice should be very careful to get this 
position exactly correct the first few days he practices it. Work at 



HOLDING AND FIRING POSITIONS 



483 



first for accuracy of position only. It is not nearly as complicated as 

it sounds on paper, but a good coach is a great help in getting it correct. 

Now for the advantages of this position. If it is assumed exactly 

as prescribed, and is practiced for half an hour a day for a week, pay- 




Fig. 128 

The prone position, showing method of using the gun-sling. Sketch on target 

above shows the angle at which to lie in relation to the line of fire 

ing .particular attention to all the little details as here described, at the 
end of that time one will find that he can place the sights of the rifle 
on the target and hold them there steadily, sights aligned just below 
the bull's-eye, exactly as though the rifle were in a vise. There will be 
no visible tremor to the rifle. Think what this means ? It means good 
shooting and big scores. Also it will be found that the tight hold 
takes up all the recoil. The recoil is not felt by the shoulder at all, 
but is apparently distributed all over the body. As far as the recoil 



4 8 4 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

is concerned one can fire a hundred shots in this position without the 
shoulder feeling it. Moreover, if one is shaky, either from recent 
exertion or from nervousness, it apparently makes little difference, as 
the tight hold prevents all trembling. In other words, the novice who 
learns this position suddenly finds that he can hold in it as steadily as 
the old seasoned shot. 

In rapid fire in the prone position, with a bolt-action rifle, keep both 
elbows on the ground all the time. If possible, be sure to have a deep 
hole for the right elbow to rest in, as it helps a lot. Keeping the right 
elbow in this hole, as soon as a shot is fired, reach forward with the 
right hand and grasp the bolt handle ; jerk the bolt handle up, and pull 
it hard and smartly to the rear; as the bolt comes to the rear, at the 
same time force the left hand over to the right and low, keeping both 
elbows in their position on the ground, or in their holes all the time. 
When the bolt is fully drawn to the rear the muzzle of the rifle should 
be 'way over to the right, and almost touching the ground. Close the 
bolt quickly, smartly, and with force, and at the same time bring the 
left hand up and to the left, raising the muzzle of the rifle so that it 
again points at the target. A little practice at this will enable one to 
do it with astonishing rapidity, the sights coming back on to the target 
so that very little rectification of the aim for succeeding shots is neces- 
sary. Firing in this manner with military rifle I have often been able 
to make six hits in 12 seconds on the silhouette of a man lying prone 
at 200 yards. 

GENERAL RULES FOR ALL POSITIONS 

Before starting to hold, take a deep breath, then exhale this breath, 
and let the lungs become normal before starting to aim and hold. The 
breath must of course be held while the aim and hold are being per- 
fected, and one can hold the breath with very much less effort if a 
deep breath be taken just before. 

Press the cheek hard against the left side of the butt-stock. The 
cheek assists almost as much in holding as either of the hands. 

Do not lean the face, nose, or mouth over the stock in rear of the 
comb, and keep the thumb away from the left side of the small of the 
stock. If you violate this rule a bloody nose or cut mouth may result 
with a rifle of heavy recoil, while if you pay attention to it, and press 
the cheek hard against the stock, not trying to resist the recoil, but 
letting the body yield and sway with it, the recoil will never bother 
you in the slightest. 



HOLDING AND FIRING POSITIONS 



485 



Do not cant the rifle. Keep it plumb. If you lean it to one side or 
the other the bullet will strike in the direction of the lean or cant. 

Let the forearm of the rifle rest well down in the palm of the left 
hand. Remember that the muscles and joints are what tremble, and 
the fewer of them involved in any position the steadier will that posi- 




Fig. 129 

Prone position with sandbag rest, showing normal position, and the use of the 

gun-sling. Only the back of the left hand rests on the sandbag 

tion be. Count the joints and muscles in the thumb and fingers of 
your left hand. 

Keep the left elbow well under the rifle. If you want to support 
anything you place the prop straight under it, not at an angle. 

Remember to keep your balance. Do not lean way forward, or 
way back, or your body will tremble and sway. 



CHAPTER XXVI 
TRIGGER PULL 

IT matters not how carefully the aim is taken, or how steadily the 
rifle is held, if, at the instant of discharging the rifle, the aim and 
hold are deranged by the convulsive jerk at the trigger. The trigger 
must release the sear from the sear notch without the least movement 
of the rifle, or the bullet will not fly true to the point at which it was 
aimed the instant before the trigger was pulled. As one concentrates 
his whole will power on holding steadily and aiming accurately, the 
body becomes immovable, frozen, as it were. It is then quite difficult 
to transfer the will power to the trigger finger, and to press it so as to 
discharge the rifle, because the finger will be found to be " frozen " also. 
The tendency with the untrained men is instantly to relax on the hold 
and aim, and give a jerk or tug at the trigger. The tendency to do 
this must be constantly repressed. The matter of learning how to pull 
the trigger without aiming and holding at the same time is a very simple 
matter, but the co-ordinating of the trigger pull with the aim and hold 
so as to insure a perfect let-off, and at the same time maintaining the 
aim and hold to the very end, is a matter which requires considerable 
practice. In fact, an expert rifleman realizes that he must keep at 
practicing this all the time if he would maintain his ability to shoot 
accurately. 

We find on American rifles three kinds of trigger pulls. First there 
is the old-fashioned, " clean " pull seen on the best single-shot rifles, 
and on the Winchester repeating rifles. When the trigger is pressed it 
appears to be immovable until the required amount of pressure has 
been applied to cause the hammer to fall. Then it gives away all at 
once, something like the breaking of a small glass rod. This is the best 
type of trigger pull. With it one soon learns how much pressure he 
may place on the trigger without danger of firing the rifle. That is, he 
learns to place all but an ounce or so of the necessary pressure to dis- 
charge the piece on the trigger as soon as he starts to aim and hold. 
Then, just as the aim seems the most accurate, and the hold the stead- 
iest, he very carefully squeezes on this last ounce or so of pressure 
which discharges the rifle without any movement of the piece. Trig- 



TRIGGER PULL 



487 



gers of this type when they come from the manufacturers pull off on an 
applied pressure of from five to seven pounds. This is entirely too 
heavy for accurate work. However, they are capable of being eased 
up to about 3 pounds, which is the correct weight for all-around rifle 
shooting. See Chapter XXII for instructions regarding the adjusting 
of trigger pulls. 

Triggers of the bolt-action type are slightly different. When cor- 




Fig. 130 
Prone position with sandbag rest, showing the " razor strop " method of hold- 
ing the gun-sling. A good position for deliberate slow fire, but not satisfactory 
for rapid fire 

rectly adjusted there is a safety or preliminary pull, during which the 
trigger moves back about % inch against the tension of the sear spring. 
This safety pull is absolutely necessary for the safety of the rifle, pre- 
venting premature discharge, and should never be eliminated. As a 
rule it takes about one and one-half pounds pressure on the trigger to 
take it up. After it has been taken up, and the trigger has moved 
slightly to the rear, the remainder of the pull is clean, as in the case 
just described, and the trigger pulls off with a total pressure of about 
3^ pounds. In pulling a trigger of this kind one must be careful to at 
once take up the safety pull as soon as the rifle is placed to the shoulder. 
That is, learn to place enough pressure on the trigger as soon as the 
finger touches it, to make it move slightly to the rear against the pres- 



488 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

sure of the sear spring, and then start the trigger pull proper, as in the 
first case. One can soon become accustomed to a trigger of this kind, 
but it never satisfies one as well as the straight, clean pull, especially in 
rapid fire. With recruits in the Army it has been found that the larger 
percentage of failures to make good scores in rapid fire is due to not 
taking up the safety pull at all, but when the aim seems right, pulling 
the trigger the whole way back with one motion or jerk. This must be 
specially guarded against. 








• 



Fig. 131 
Firing from a prone trench 

The third type of trigger pull is that usually seen on self-loading 
rifles, and the modern type of hammerless repeating rifles. The trigger 
moves back quite a little before the rifle is finally discharged, but too 
often this movement is attended with a rough " drag," consisting of a 
series of jumps and catches, so that one can scarcely ever tell when he 
has applied the right amount of pressure. Moreover, the number of 
little jumps and catches to this preliminary movement of the trigger will 
differ according to whether the taking up movement is made fast or 
slow, so that one can never learn whether he has surely taken them 
all up or not. The consequence is that one never dares place as much 
preliminary pressure on such a trigger as with the first two types, and 
more pressure must remain to be squeezed on when the aim and hold 
are perfected. This leaves a larger chance for a jerk and derangement 
at the vital instant of discharge. Also such a trigger is liable to pro- 
duce flinching, as a decided jump to the trigger when pressure is applied 
under high concentration of will power is liable to make one jump. 
First-class accuracy of shooting can never be attained with such a 



TRIGGER PULL 



489 



trigger, and this is just one reason more why such weapons are only 
fit for short-range work. 

One is not a finished marksman until this detail of trigger pull is 
learned so well that it is done instinctively and correctly, even in rapid 
fire or under excitement. Jerking the trigger and flinching can only 
be cured by learning to concentrate absolutely every atom of will power 
on holding, aiming, and trigger pull, so that there is no room in the 
brain or nervous system to permit of the forming of the act of jerking 
or flinching. It is all a matter of practice and concentration. 




-Fig. 132 
Firing from a standing trench 



CHAPTER XXVII 
CALLING THE SHOT 

VERY few men indeed can hold with absolute steadiness except in 
the prone position. There will be a certain tremor, and the 
sights, instead of resting steadily just under the bull's-eye, will seem 
to travel around over the face of the target as one aims. The rifleman 
endeavors to pull the trigger just as the sights drift under the bull's-eye. 
The measure of success which he attains in this depends upon his skill. 
Therefore the sights are not always absolutely correctly aligned on the 
target as shown in the plates illustrating the method of aligning sights 
and target. 

Now it is obvious that the bullet should strike at, or close to, the 
point on the target at which the sights were aligned at the instant of 
discharge. If the bullet does this it is a sign that the rifle is correctly 
sighted for the individual who is using it. If, after several trials, it is 
found that the bullet does not strike close to where the sights are 
aligned at the instant of discharge, but on the other hand strikes some 
distance off in a certain direction, then it is evident that the sights re- 
quire adjustment. A rifle should shoot where it is aimed, or, to put it 
in the language of an old mountaineer, " she should shoot where she 
looks." 

In order to be able to adjust our sights to make the rifle hit close to 
where it is aimed it is evident that we must know where the sights were 
aligned at the instant that the rifle was discharged. To know this we 
must catch with our eye the exact spot on the target where the aim is 
at the instant before the recoil of the rifle blots out a clear vision of the 
sights and target. This catching of the aim at this instant is what is 
termed " calling the shot." The term comes from the practice in team 
shooting. The coach sat alongside of the pair of riflemen at the firing 
point, and advised them as to their shooting. As each man fired he 
" called his shot " to the coach; that is, he told the coach just where he 
expected his shot to strike before it was marked. 

Calling the shot is not hard to learn. One has simply to keep his 
mind on it, to watch the line of sight as it trembles, and travels over the 
surface of the target, and to catch with the eye and retain the memory 

490 



CALLING THE SHOT 



491 



of the last spot where he saw his sights pointed just before the rifle went 
off. Thus in Fig. 1 34 the sights were aligned high and to the right, and 
the bullet should strike the target near to this spot. Of course the 
bullet will scarcely ever strike the exact spot called, because no rifle is 
absolutely accurate, nor can one see with absolute accuracy at a great 
distance. But one should be able to call his shots within about 4 inches 
at 200 yards, 10 inches at 500 yards, or 20 inches at 1000 yards. 




CHAPTER XXVIII 
SIGHT ADJUSTMENT 

ONE cannot do accurate shooting unless his sights are correctly 
set. Therefore the matter of sight adjustment is one of the 
essentials to good shooting. The rear sight must be so adjusted for 
target practice that if one aims just below the bull's-eye as directed 
in the chapter on aiming, his shot will strike near the center of the 
bull's-eye. Military rifles have engraved on the sight leaf the position 
that the leaf should be placed in for every hundred yards of range. 
Sporting rifles have the sights approximately set for a certain dis- 
tance, usually 50 or 200 yards, when the sight is at its lowest eleva- 
tion. An untried rifle cannot always be relied upon to shoot into the 
bull's-eye with the sights set at the exact range. For example, on a 
calm day at 500 yards, one cannot always take a new rifle, and set the 
sights at 500 yards elevation, and at zero for wind, and be sure that a 
correctly aimed and pulled shot will strike the bull's-eye. Indeed the 
bullet may hit the target two or three feet off in any direction from the 
bull. Often the manufacturer tries to set the sights correctly for ele- 
vation and zero before they leave the shop. In many factories and 
arsenals a large number of skilled marksmen are employed on this 
work. But it must be remembered that these rifles are tested and the 
sights set under a certain condition only, and there are a great many 
things which influence the shooting of the rifle and the flight of the 
bullet, and hence make a change in sight setting necessary. Little dif- 
ferences in ammunition, wind, light, temperature, humidity, altitude, 
condition of the bore, and individual methods of aiming and holding 
all have their influence on the sighting necessary for a certain rifle. 
Moreover, owing to individual peculiarities of aiming and holding, two 
men, both good shots, may have to set the sights of the same rifle quite 
differently for both elevation and windage in order that their shots 
may strike where they aim them. 

In Part I of this work stress has been laid upon the necessity of 
having the rifle equipped with sights which are readily adjustable for 
both elevation and windage, and which have positive readings by means 
of scales so that the exact adjustment can be read and recorded. It 

492 



SIGHT ADJUSTMENT 



493 



is not possible to do good shooting, except at short ranges, unless such 
sights are used. Non-adjustable sights may be all right for a particular 
lot of ammmunition, and a particular condition of the weather. But let 
one change his ammunition, or let the weather change considerably, and 
the rifle no longer shoots where it is aimed. A change of sight adjust- 









Fig. 133 
Firing around a building or tree — standing 



ment becomes necessary, and the only way to get it with crude, non- 
adjustable sights is to alter their attachment to the barrel, or to file or 
alter them in some way. A continuation of this is, of course, impos- 
sible. Therefore we will here take it for granted that one has his rifle 
equipped with a satisfactory rear sight like those on our military rifles, 
or the Lyman Nos. 48 and 103 rear sights, or other similar rear sights 
having positive adjustments for both elevation and windage, as well as 
proper scales for reading and recording. 



494 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Suppose we are shooting our rifle for the first time at a certain 
range. For the sake of simplicity we will say that the range is 200 
yards, because that is usually the shortest range that the modern mili- 
tary and high-power rifle is sighted for. If we are using a military rifle 
we set the sights at the 200-yard mark for the first shot, and if we are 
using a sporting rifle we place the sights as low as they will go for the 
first shot, taking it for granted that this is approximately the cor- 
rect setting for 200-yards range. Our object is to get the sights so 
adjusted that the bullet will strike close to where it is aimed on the 
target 200 yards away. Let us say that we fire the first shot, and 
just the instant before the rifle goes off we notice that the sights were 
aligned, not just under the bull's-eye as we would like to have them, but 
at about a foot off the bull's-eye at 2 o'clock. 1 Fig. 134 shows the 
sights aligned on the target as they were the instant before discharge. 
It is evident, therefore, that we should expect the shot to strike the 
target a few inches above the point where the shot was thus called. But 
when the shot is marked we see that it has struck just below the 
bull's-eye, or at 6 o'clock, as indicated by the small round mark just 
below the bull's-eye on the target in Fig. 134. In other words, our 
shot has struck about 12 inches below, and 12 inches to the left of the 
spot where we called it. (We estimate this distance of 12 inches 
each way from our knowledge that the target is 4 feet wide and 6 
feet high, and the bull's-eye is 8 inches in diameter.) Let us try just 
one more shot to be sure before we start to adjust the sights. This 
time we get our shot off just right with the front sight just under the 
bull's-eye, and were our rifle correctly sighted we would expect a bull's- 
eye. But when the target is marked we see that our shot has struck 
about eight inches out from the edge of the bull's-eye at 7 130 o'clock. 
Again it seems that the rifle is shooting about 12 inches to the left, and 
12 inches low from where it is aimed. Our problem is, therefore, so to 
move or adjust our sights as to make the rifle shoot where it is aimed. 
That is, we must raise our elevation to cause the shot to strike higher, 
and we must move the wind gauge to the right to cause the shot to strike 
farther to the right. Right here we come across the most important 
rule of sight adjustment which every rifleman should remember. 

MOVE YOUR REAR SIGHT IN THE DIRECTION IN WHICH YOU WISH YOUR 

shot to strike. That is, if you want your shot to strike higher, 

1 For convenience in describing the location of hits on a target the rifleman 
divides the face of the target up like the face of a clock. Thus a hit at 12 
o'clock is one directly above the bull's-eye, and a hit at 3 o'clock is one to the 
right of the bull, the bull's-eye being considered the center of the clock face. 



SIGHT ADJUSTMENT 



495 



raise your rear sight ; if you want your shot to strike to the right 
move the sight to the right by means of the wind gauge. 

Now we are confronted with another problem. How much shall we 
move the sight to give just about 12 inches correction in each direction ? 




Fig. 135 
Firing around a building or tree — kneeling 

There is no use in doing this by guess work, moving it perhaps too 
far, and not discovering this until we have fired a couple of more 
shots. Ammunition costs money, or we may be shooting in a match 
where errors in sight adjustment mean many points in the score. If 
we refer to the tables at the end of Chapter VIII we will there find the 
information necessary to correct to just the right amount. For ex- 
ample, if we are using the Model 1903 rifle with the sights set at 200 
yards and zero for windage, we see from the table that 5.44 inches 
is the correction corresponding to a change in elevation of 100 yards 
when shooting at 200 yards. Twice 5.44 is 10.88 inches, which is ap- 
proximately 12 inches (close enough for this purpose). We therefore 
elevate our sight 200 yards, or from 200 to 400 yards, and our next 



496 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

shot will, strike approximately 12 inches higher in relation to the point 
of aim than did the last one. For our windage we see from the 
Windage Correction Table that a point of adjustment on the wind- 
gauge scale is equivalent to a movement of 8 inches at 200 yards. 
Therefore a movement of a point and a half right will give us our 
required 12 inches correction. To sum up, for our first two shots 
which struck 12 inches low and 12 inches to the left, our sights were 
adjusted at 200 yards elevation, and zero for windage. We now ad- 
Just our sights to 400 yards elevation and 1% points right windage, 
and our rifle should strike where it is aimed at 200 yards. 

Now take the same case exactly, but suppose that the rifle is equipped 
with the Lyman No. 48 rear sight. This sight has micrometer adjust- 
ments reading to minutes of angle, as explained in Chapter VII. One 
ininute adjustment is equivalent to a change in point of impact of 1 
jnch for every hundred yards of range. At 200 yards 1 minute will 
change the point of impact 2 inches. Therefore we simply raise the 
elevation 6 minutes, equals 12 inches, and move the wind gauge 6 
minutes or clicks to the right, equals 12 inches. This shows the con- 
venience and simplicity of working with a sight which reads to minutes 
of angle. 

Suppose on the other hand that we are using a Savage Model 1899 
rifle, caliber .250-3000 Savage, equipped with a Lyman No. 30^ rear 
sight. With this sight we can calculate from the tables at the end of 
Chapter VIII that one point of elevation will change the point of 
impact 6.15 inches per every hundred yards of range, and one point 
on the wind gauge will similarly change the point of impact 2.46 inches. 

There is frequently a tendency on the part of the novice to aim off to 
one side, or high, or low, to correct errors in sighting. For example, 
if the shot strikes to the right of the bull's-eye, the novice will often 
aim the next shot to the left of the bull in hopes of striking it. In 
target practice this is absolutely wrong, and should never be per- 
mitted. While one may get a good score once in a while by this 
method, there is too much memory and guess work about it. No good 
shot uses this method, and a rifleman working in this manner would 
never be tolerated on a rifle team. In target shooting one should make 
it an invariable rule always to aim normally, with the top of the front 
sight just below the bull's-eye, and then change the adjustment of 
the sights to bring the center of impact to the point of call. 

The bullet will seldom strike exactly where the shot is called, because 
no rifle is absolutely accurate, nor can one call his shot exactly. A 



SIGHT ADJUSTMENT 497 

good rifle is accurate enough to group its shots within a 10-inch circle 
at 500 yards, and in practice it has been found that expert riflemen can 
call their shots to within five inches of where they hit at this range 
and proportionately at other distances. 

The following rules and tables of sight adjustment pertain to the 
United States rifle, Model of 1903, when used with the regular Model 
1906 service ammunition. Those portions printed in italics should be 
memorized by the military rifleman. 

RULES AND TABLE OF SIGHT ADJUSTMENT 

United States Rifle, Model of 1903. 

i. Move your sight in the direction that yon wish your rifle to hit. 

That is, if you want your rifle to hit higher, raise your elevation. If 

you want it to hit to the right turn the wind-gauge screw so that the 

movable base moves to the right. 

2. The numbers on the elevation scale on the sight leaf refer to the 
marks or lines belozv the numbers ; for example, the figure 5 is above 
the 500 yard line. To set the sight at 550 yards, the index line (on 
either side of the corners of the triangle for the open sight, or on either 
side of the peep hole for the peep sight) must be clamped just half 
way between the " 5 line " on the right side of the leaf, and the " 6 
line " on the left side. 

3. The smallest marks or graduations on the wind-gauge scale are 
called " points." For convenience the line indicating each third point 
is made longer than the others. When the wind gauge is set at zero, 
the two zero marks on the fixed base are in line with the point lines at 
either end of the wind-gauge scale. When the wind-gauge is set at " 1 
point right " the movable base has been moved to the right so that the 
second line on the right side of the scale is in coincidence with the 
index or zero line on the right of the fixed base. 

4. The sight must be set with the utmost accuracy. Look at it care- 
fully in a shaded light, and see that it is not even a, hair's-breadth off 
the reading desired. 

ELEVATION TABLE 

change of 25 yards in elevation moves the shot 

change of 25 yards in elevation moves the shot 

change of 25 yards in elevation moves the shot 

change of 25 yards in elevation moves the shot 

change of 25 yards in elevation moves the shot 

change of 25 yards in elevation moves the shot 

change of 25 yards in elevation moves the shot 

change of 25 yards in elevation moves the shot 



At 


100 


yards 


a 


At 


200 


yards 


a 


At 


300 


yards 


a 


At 


400 


yards 


a 


At 


500 


yards 


a 


At 


600 


yards 


a 


At 


700 


yards 


a 


At 


800 


yards 


a 



•7 


inches. 


1.6 


inches. 


2.8 


inches. 


4-3 


inches. 


6.2 


inches. 


8.6 


inches. 


11.6 


inches. 


15-4 


inches. 



498 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

At 900 yards a change of 25 yards in elevation moves the shot 19.9 inches. 
At 1000 yards a change of 25 yards in elevation moves the shot 25.1 inches. 

A convenient elevation rule to remember is : A change of 100 yards 
in the elevation used at any range alters the point of impact a distance 
equal to the number of inches contained in the square of the range. 
For example : At 500 yards, changing the elevation 100 yards changes 
the point of impact 25 inches (5 X 5 — 25.) 

WINDGAUGE TABLE 

At 100 yards a change of 1 point on windgauge moves the shot 4 inches. 

At 200 yards a change of 1 point on windgauge moves the shot 8 inches. 

At 300 yards a change of 1 point on windgauge moves the shot 12 inches. 

At 400 yards a change of 1 point on windgauge moves the shot 16 inches. 

At 500 yards a change of 1 point on windgauge moves the shot 20 inches. 

At 600 yards a change of 1 point on windgauge moves the shot 24 inches. 

At 700 yards a change of 1 point on windgauge moves the shot 28 inches. 

At 800 yards a change of 1 point on windgauge moves the shot 32 inches. 

At 900 yards a change of 1 point on windgauge moves the shot 36 inches. 

At 1000 yards a change of 1 point on windgauge moves the shot 40 inches. 

A convenient wind-gauge rule which all should memorize is : 
Moving the zvind gauge 1 point moves the shot 4 inches on the target 
for every hundred yards of range. For example, 100 yards, 4 inches; 
200 yards, 8 inches ; 560 yards, 20 inches. 

GALLERY PRACTICE SIGHT ADJUSTMENT 

In gallery practice, either with the .22 caliber United States gallery 
practice rifle, or with the regular Model 1903 service rifle, the most 
practical rule is : At 25 yards 1 point on the wind-gauge scale equals 
1 inch on the target. Changing the elevation a distance equal to one 
point has a similar value. 

THE MICROMETER SIGHT ADJUSTER 

Expert military riflemen seldom rely upon their fingers and eyes to 
set their sights for ranges over 500 yards. There is a little too much 
guess work about it to produce the very best results in competitive 
shooting. Instead they use a little instrument called a " micrometer 
sight adjuster." This snaps on the leaf and slide of the sight, and con- 
tains the regular micrometer screw system and scale of adjustments. 
One minute on this instrument makes an adjustment equivalent to a 
change in point of impact of 1 inch for every hundred of yards range. 
Suppose one is shooting at 600 yards, and his shots are striking 12 
inches below the center of the bull's-eye. Snap the micrometer on the 
sight and run it up 2 minutes, and the elevation will be exactly correct. 



SIGHT ADJUSTMENT 499 

With this sight adjuster the rifleman makes his readings minutes of 
angle instead of yards. Thus for 600 yards his normal elevation will 
be " 20 minutes " instead of, say, 625 yards. This instrument thus 
enables him to adjust his sight to inches on the target, and eliminates 
all guess work. This considerably increases the accuracy, and the 
size of the scores at long range. At 800 and 1000 yards the rifleman 
adjusting his sights by hand and eye alone is hopelessly handicapped 
against the man using the micrometer sight adjuster. With this sight 
adjuster and the Model 1903 rifle, using .30-caliber Model 1906 service 
ammunition, it has been found that the amount necessary to raise the 
elevation from one range to another is approximately as follows : 

From 200 to 300 yards raise 3 minutes. 

From 300 to 500 yards raise 7.7 minutes. 

From 500 to 600 yards raise 4.3 minutes. 

From 600 to 800 yards raise 12 minutes. 

From 800 to 900 yards raise 7 minutes. 

From 900 to 1000 yards raise 8 minutes. 

SIGHT ADJUSTMENT OF HUNTING RIFLES 

All the foregoing pertains to sight adjustment of a rifle intended for 
target shooting on a bull's-eye target. With a rifle intended for game 
shooting it is not correct to adjust the sights so that the bull's-eye 
will be struck in the center when aim is taken at, or a little below, the 
bottom of the bull's-eye. Instead we should adjust the sights on such 
a rifle so that the bullet will hit the point aimed at. If the rifle is 
sighted in for hunting purposes on a bull's-eye target it is best to aim 
as one normally would on that target; that is, just below the bottom of 
the bull's-eye, but so adjust the sights that the bullet will strike at or 
near the bottom of the bull's-eye ; that is, near the point of aim. Or the 
hunting rifle may be sighted in on a large, round, mouse-colored target, 
aim being taken at the center of the target, and sights adjusted until 
the bullets strike at the center. For 200 yards this target should be 
about 2 feet in diameter. 

With a hunting rifle it is best to adjust the sights accurately for sev- 
eral ranges. First there should be a " point blank adjustment " say for 
15 yards, so that one can aim, for example, at the head of a grouse at 
this short range, and be sure of decapitating it. Next the sight adjust- 
ment should be found for the " big game range," the sights being ad- 
justed for that range at which the highest point in the trajectory does 
not raise over 4 inches. For a rifle of around 2000 feet per second 
velocity this would be about 150 yards, and for rifles around 2700 feet 



5 oo THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

per second velocity, 200 yards. With sights adjusted for this range one 
does not have to stop to estimate the range for all medium or close shots 
as the trajectory will not carry the bullet under or over an eight-inch 
circle representing the vital portion of a big game animal. Then the 
rifle should also be sighted in for longer ranges, say up to 400 yards, 
for long range shots at game, in which cases it will be necessary to 
estimate the range. 

In most cases it is impractical to adjust sights in shooting at game un- 
less the game is at a distance and undisturbed. It is best, if the game 
is beyond the big game range, to which the sights are set, to hold a 
little higher on the animal, say hold almost up to the back bone. One 
should never try to hold the front sight higher in the rear sight as this 
is the worst kind of a guess. So, too, it will in almost all cases be 
impractical to adjust the wind gauge for winds. Instead it is best 
to hold off just slightly for wind. If the wind is slight do not allow for 
it. If it is a moderate wind try to hold off about 8 inches for it at a 
range of 200 yards. If it is a very strong wind at this range hold on 
the windy side of the animal. Make no allowance for wind at ranges 
less than 200 yards with high-power rifles as there is very little devi- 
ation. 

The advantage of adjustable sights on hunting rifles lies not so much 
in the ability to adjust them under hunting conditions, as in the ability 
to adjust the sights exactly correct for the various distances, both for 
elevation and windage, and to do this with the minimum amount of 
ammunition. Also the ability to make small changes in the sight ad- 
justment which may be found necessary on account of changes in 
ammunition, changes in altitude, and changes in temperature. A good 
adjustable sight, like the No. 48 or No. 103 Lyman, will pay for itself 
in the time and ammunition expended in the first sighting in of the rifle. 



CHAPTER XXIX 
POSITION AND AIMING DRILLS 

THE Small Arms Firing Manual " of the Army prescribes that the 
preliminary practice of organizations before starting the regular 
season's course of target practice on the rifle range shall include posi- 
tion and aiming drills. These drills are intended to teach the correct 
firing positions, to develop the muscles used in holding the rifle, to 
accustom one to the handling and manipulation of the rifle, to give 
practice in aiming, trigger squeeze, and calling the shot. They form a 
part of the daily instruction of all organizations for about a month 
prior to their going on the rifle range. The young soldier is prone to 
look upon these drills as very much of a bore, but the old and experi- 
enced shot realizes their value in putting one in the best condition for 
shooting, and in keeping him in this condition. No man who is really 
expert with the rifle neglects to practice these exercises regularly every 
day, and particularly for a month or so prior to, and during, the range 
practice season. 

I have seen members of the national match teams, comprising the 
best shots in the world, spending hour after hour at these drills, 
snapping their rifles at miniature targets, going through all the move- 
ments, and using every bit as much care as though they were actually 
shooting in an important match. I have seen skilled shots sitting on 
a bed practicing inserting clips of dummy cartridges into the magazine 
of the rifle in order to develop and retain the skill which will insure that 
there will be no hitch of loss of time in this operation on the rifle range. 
I have seen men practicing rapid fire at a small target, immediately 
above which was a clock with the hour and minute hands removed, 
and a big tin second hand placed on it to give the correct time. I have 
practiced all these exercises myself, practically all the time for the past 
twenty years, and only thus have I been able to keep in shape for shoot- 
ing all the time. The competition in rifle shooting is so keen among 
exports that they realize that they can neglect nothing which will im- 
prove their shooting, and keep them in form. 

A number of position and aiming drills are prescribed in the " Small 

501 



502 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Arms Firing Manual," but the most important ones are what are called 
the " trigger pull exercises." In these exercises miniature targets are 
used, and are placed either against the wall of the barracks, or arranged 
outdoors at a short range, so as to be at approximately the height of the 
man's eye when he aims in the various firing positions. The soldier 
assumes one of the firing positions, aims at the target, and fires with 
the empty rifle. In these exercises he uses all the care, and pays at- 
tention to all the little details, of position, breathing, holding, aiming, 
trigger squeeze, and calling the shot that he would if he were actually 
shooting in an important match or in record practice on the range 
with ball ammunition. The careful practice of these exercises in each 
of the firing positions for 15 minutes daily will do wonders in teaching 
one to shoot, and in getting one into shooting condition and keeping 
him there. 

The rifleman or sportsman will find that a few minutes a day prac- 
tice in his own room will do wonders in making him thoroughly ex- 
pert in the handling of his rifle, and the novice will find that it will 
give him just that practice that he needs in holding, aiming, and trigger 
squeeze. The following suggestions regarding these drills will be 
found useful : 

The target should subtend the same visual angle that it does in 
outdoor practice. For example, at 100 yards a target 2 feet square 
with a 5-inch bull's-eye is very satisfactory. Therefore for position 
and aiming drill, if the distance from the firer to the aiming target be 
5 yards, the target should be one-twentieth of this size. Such a tar- 
get should be made of a yellow paper, similar to wrapping paper, so 
that it will have the same appearance as the regular range target. In 
this way the rifleman in aiming will have almost exactly the same 
picture in his eye as he would on the outdoor range, and uniformity 
in aiming will result. Such targets should be suspended from the 
wall, in a well-lighted place, so that they are at the height of the 
rifleman's eye when he assumes the firing position. 

The sportsman who has but one small room in which to practice, 
and who will desire to do most of his practice in the standing position, 
can get along very well with a small target made on thin, almost 
transparent paper, and pasted on the window pane. Such a target may 
be either a bull's-eye target, or it may be the silhouette of an animal, 
a deer, for example. A figure of a deer for use on a window pane at 
3 yards should be about 1 inch long by half an inch high. 

The sights should be adjusted to that range which the practice is to 



POSITION AND AIMING DRILLS 503 

simulate. The rifle is to be snapped at the target without ammuni- 
tion. It does no harm at all to snap a bolt-action rifle. With a lever- 
action rifle it is best to introduce a small piece of rubber pencil eraser 
between the hammer and the firing pin for the hammer to strike on. 

The standing and kneeling positions should be assumed the same 
as outdoors. In the sitting position the heels can be made secure by 
tacking small cleats to the floor in the correct position, or use a large 
door mat, large enough to both sit on and rest the heels on. In the 
prone position use a blanket folded to about four thicknesses to rest 
the elbows on. 

Play the game fair. Use all the skill you are capable of to get a 
steady position, an accurate aim, and a clean trigger squeeze. Posi- 
tion and aiming drills carelessly performed are worse than useless. 
They teach bad habits, and are a positive detriment to good shooting. 
Hold the rifle as though you expected it to recoil; that is, as though 
it was loaded with a ball cartridge. 

In practicing for target shooting hold yourself down to the same 
time limit you would have in competitions, and fire the same number 
of consecutive shots that would be required in a match. In practicing 
for game shooting fire slowly at first until you attain the skill to 
call a bull eight times out of ten, then speed your firing up to that 
point where you can get a good hold, good aim, and good trigger 
squeeze in two seconds after placing the rifle to the shoulder. 

Rapid fire should be practiced also, with a view to perfecting one- 
self in both manipulation of the rifle, and quick aiming and trigger 
work. For such practice it is best to use dummy cartridges, as the 
feel of the working of the action is usually quite different with an 
empty rifle. Dummy cartridges can easily be made by taking empty 
shells, leaving the old primers in the shells, resizing the neck of the 
shells, and seating bullets. The powder is of course omitted. To 
distinguish such cartridges from ball ammunition, rub the shells with a 
little mercury which will turn them silver color. In using dummies 
place a folded blanket on the ground where the dummies will fall 
when ejected. This will save the dummies from becoming badly de- 
formed. 

Dummy cartridges may also be used to practice the rapid refilling 
of the magazine, a most important matter, particularly to the military 
rifleman. 

There is almost no limit to the amount of good practice one can 
get in his own room. After becoming skilled in the standard firing 



504 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

positions vary the positions slightly as one would have to in the field 
for quick shots where the level and precise footing could not always 
be looked after. A small moving target can be arranged to run along 
the window-sill, and this target can even be made to bound up and 
down like a deer. Also one can learn to shoot left handed. 

Remember that all this practice is of no good unless the rifleman 
takes all the pains that he is capable of with each and every shot, 
just as though his life depended upon that very shot. 



CHAPTER XXX 
GALLERY SHOOTING 

AFTER the beginner has learned the lessons of aiming, holding, 
and trigger squeeze, the next logical step is to gallery practice. 
By gallery practice is meant shooting at short range, either indoors or 
outdoors, with reduced charges or with .22-caliber rifles. In such 
practice one may gain experience and adeptness in aiming, holding, 
trigger squeeze, calling the shot, and sight adjustment, and more 
particularly in the proper co-ordination of all these. Moreover, 
gallery shooting is interesting work, and if the element of competi- 
tion be introduced it is a keen sport. Gallery shooting is not only 
valuable for the beginner, but the expert shot realizes its value in 
keeping in shooting form, particularly during the winter months when 
the weather is too inclement for shooting outdoors with any degree 
of comfort. Practically every expert in the country who is actively 
competing now realizes the value of gallery work, and keeps it up all 
winter long. . J 

There is almost no limit to the variety which may be introduced 
into work in the gallery. Not only slow fire, but rapid fire, and fire, 
on moving targets may be introduced. One may have the ordinary, 
black and white targets, or the targets may be painted a neutral color, 
to simulate game in its native environments. In fact gallery shoot- 
ing can be made practically the same as outdoor or field shooting 
except that of course weather conditions will always be the same 
and one cannot gain experience in making allowance for these. 
Gallery shooting is the same as outdoor shooting with the expense, 
recoil, noise, and weather conditions eliminated. 

A few years ago the galleries commonly seen were those at places 
of amusement where one shot at iron targets at very short range 
with .22-caliber repeating rifles. One gained considerable amusement 
but very little practical experience. Of late years gallery practice 
has taken great strides due to the encouragement given to it by the 
War Department and by the National Rifle Association. Thousands 
of rifle clubs have sprung up all over the country, and these clubs 
almost invariably have indoor ranges which they use in the winter 

50s 



506 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



time in conjunction with the outdoor range in the summer. Compe- 
titions by mail are now arranged among the various teams, and several 
leagues are in operation with very keen competition. The shoot- 
ing conditions in these clubs simulate very closely outdoor military 
shooting. A number of the Schuetzen societies also have gallery 
competitions in the winter time, and several of these clubs in New 
York City have held annual competitions for the past twenty years. 




Fig. 136 
An extemporized gallery range used at the Plattsburg Training Camp, 1916. 
The targets are tacked on boards hung from a wire fence. A railroad embank- 
ment acts as the bullet stop 

In fact there are clubs operating indoor galleries in almost all large 
cities, and the rifleman can gain much profit and experience in join- 
ing one of these clubs and entering the competitions. The name and 
address of the secretary of the nearest club can always be obtained 
by addressing the Secretary, National Rifle Association, Washington, 
D. C. 

It is also entirely practical for the individual rifleman to construct 
a gallery of his own wherein he can obtain all the practice he desires. 
Such a gallery need not be an elaborate affair. If one does not care 
about shooting at night time he can rig up a short range anywhere 
outdoors, a big packing box filled with sand being used as a bullet 
stop, and the paper targets simply being tacked on the box. The 
usual range is 25 yards. Ranges shorter than 50 feet are not very 



GALLERY SHOOTING 507 

satisfactory. If it is desired to shoot in inclement weather some sort 
of shelter should be arranged. One might fire out of a window or 
door, or if the cellar of the house be large enough a range can be 
made therein, the targets being illuminated by lights arranged as will 
be explained afterwards. If the cellar be not long enough it is some- 
times possible to extend the range out the cellar window, or to dig a 
trench outdoors leading from an opening in the cellar wall. A trench 
two feet wide and two feet deep is large enough as it is only neces- 
sary to give room for the flight of the bullets, and for the placing of 



n 



^1,27— • ; I COVEMD TRIM*. tt'WUC.U'MP 



T 
ELECTRIC OR 

•ccmiNC u*ht 



Fig. 137 
Gallery range in cellar with covered trench dug in yard or garden to obtain 
the required distance to the target. The target is placed at the end of the trench. 
Target may be arranged so as to be operated from firing point by wire cable, 
cord, and wheel if desired as shown in Fig. 139. 

the targets at the end of the trench. Using his ingenuity the rifleman 
can rig up a gallery range almost anywhere. 

Galleries for rifle clubs are more elaborate affairs. These are 
usually placed in the cellar, or on the roof of some large building. 
A number of targets and firing points are arranged. The targets are 
usually supported on clamps hung on wires and so arranged that they 
can be run on the wires down to the butt for firing or pulled back to 
the firing point for marking or for changing targets by means of a 
wheel and handle at the firing point. The illustrations accompanying 
this chapter give the details of such a range, and there are several 
firms who make a business of equipping such ranges whose names 
can always be had by addressing the Secretary, National Rifle Associa- 
tion. With such galleries it is not necessary to have any markers 
at the targets. The target is placed in its clamp at the firing point, 
and the wheel turned until the target travels along the wire down 
to the butt. Here it rests against the bullet stop. Bullet stops may 
be constructed of steel plates set at an angle of 45 degrees so that the 
bullets striking the plates are deflected down into a box of sand below 
the plate. Or a box filled with sand may be placed back of the targets, 



5o8 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



the wood facing of the box being replaced as it is shot away. Instead 
of sand the box may be filled with chunks of wood which is perhaps 
cleaner. A small telescope is rigged up on supports at the firing 
point, and as the rifleman fires each shot he looks through the telescope 
and sees where his shot has struck. After firing ten shots he reels 
his target back to the firing point and replaces it with a fresh target. 
When the target is in position for firing against the bullet stop it is 



GALLERY RANGE 

FOR S6 TO 75 fEET. 
TARffETi AT LEAST 36 INCMts APART. 



flWl 




sectional. view 
of firing point 




Fig. 138 
Gallery range with travelling target. Side view (sectional) showing construction 

illuminated by a series of lights and reflectors placed several feet in 
front of the target, and either above or below it as shown in the draw- 
ings. These lights may be electric, gas, oil, or acetylene. As the 
target is always at a certain height large benches are often provided 
at the firing point on which the rifleman can lie or kneel when firing 
in the prone or kneeling positions, thus bringing his rifle always ap- 
proximately at the height of the target. The firing points on such 
ranges are always in semi-darkness, the rifle sights appearing as though 
silhouetted against the illuminated target, and very clear aim can be 
obtained in this manner. 

In many of the large National Guard armories in this country there 
are gallery ranges as long as 100 yards. In fact one armory at least 



GALLERY SHOOTING 



509 



has a 200-yard gallery range. Such ranges are often constructed 
exactly like outdoor ranges, with shelters below the targets at the 
butts from which the markers mark the targets, and telephone connec- 
tion between firing point and targets. 

A large variety of targets are used in gallery shooting. As a rule 
the black bull's-eye of the gallery target should be slightly larger in 




SfcAR VIE.W OF flBINff POINT 



Fig. 138a 
Gallery range with travelling target. View of back of firing point partition 

proportion to the range than is the case with the outdoor target. 
Gallery targets are usually printed on light cardboard. 

The rifles usually seen at the ordinary shooting galleries at pleasure 
resorts are the Winchester and Remington repeaters for the .22-short 
cartridge. These rifles are greatly handicapped by being equipped 
only with the ordinary factory open sights. One could do much better 
shooting with them were they provided with good adjustable peep 
sights with large cup discs. But these rifles are too light and small 
for the full-grown man, and the best results cannot be attained with 
them. 

The gallery rifle used in the United States Army is known as the 
United States gallery rifle, caliber .22. In appearance, weight, and 
operation it is exactly the same as the United States rifle, Model 1903, 



510 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

but the barrel is bored and rifled for the .22-short cartridge. This 
cartridge is not loaded directly into the chamber, but into a holder. 
The holder is of steel, and has the same general shape and appear- 
ance as the .30-caliber, Model 1906 cartridge. This holder contains 
a chamber for the cartridge, and a firing pin. Five holders can be 
inserted into the magazine of the rifle in exactly the same manner 
as cartridges are inserted into the magazine of the Model 1903 rifle. 
The striker of the rifle hits the firing pin of the holder which fires 
the cartridge. The .22-caliber bullet travels a slight distance through 
the holder before it leaves it, and jumps into the barrel. This arrange- 
ment makes the operation of loading the holders and working the bolt 
exactly the same as in the regular military arm, which was the result 
desired. These rifles when new shoot very well, although they cannot 
be compared in accuracy with a good .22-caliber rifle chambered in 
the regular manner. They need a great deal of attention to keep them 
in good condition. Both the holders and the barrel must be kept very 
clean, and care must be taken that the muzzles of the holders are not 
injured or deformed when ejected from the rifle, particularly in rapid 
fire. Some holders will be found which do not shoot accurately, and 
these should be laid to one side and not used. 

By far the best rifles for gallery shooting, and this includes all 
shooting up to 100 yards on sheltered ranges, are the heavy Win- 
chester and Stevens single-shot rifles chambered for either the .22- 
short, or the .22-long rifle cartridges. The .22-short is as good 
as the .22-long rifle up to 25 yards, but it is not suited for longer 
ranges. A rifle for the .22-short cartridge should be rifled and 
chambered for that cartridge alone. The continued use of the 
.22-short cartridge in a rifle chambered for the .22-long rifle cartridge 
will soon result in the ruining of the chamber, and the destroying of 
all accuracy. If one can afford the outlay by far the best outfit is 
a Pope barrel for the .22-long rifle cartridge fitted to a Winchester 
single-shot action. Such a rifle should have a full-sized shotgun 
stock, a trigger pull eased up to 3% pounds, and a forearm which 
will admit of the attachment of the regular military sling strap in the 
proper position. The entire rifle should weigh about 9 pounds. 

The best sights for gallery use on such rifles are either the Lyman 
No. 104, which should be equipped with a cup disc, or the Winchester 
type A, 5-power telescope with a No. 2 rear mounting. Both of these 
sights have adjustments for elevation and windage which read to half 
minutes of an^le. A half minute is equivalent to Vs inch on the 25- 



GALLERY SHOOTING 



5ii 



yard target, */i inch on the 50-yard target, and Vi inch on the 100-yard 
target, and the rifleman will at once see how very convenient such 
adjustments are. A heavy single-shot rifle chambered for the .22-long 
rifle cartridge is accurate enough to require adjustments every bit as 
accurate as this. 

One may also use his regular hunting rifle for gallery shooting, 




Fig. 138b 
Gallery range with travelling targets. View of complete range. Six firing points 

and thus gain the added advantage which comes from practicing with 
the same weapon that he will use in the field. If the rifle be of small 
caliber, from .25 to .35, it will work very well at short range with 
a reduced load. Data for loading reduced loads are given under 
each cartridge in Chapter XI. If the gallery be lighted with artificial 
light it will be found necessary to equip the rear sight with a large 
cup disc to get the best results, as the ordinary Lyman peep, or open 
sights, allow too much of the reflected light to come back into the 
eyes and good definition of the sights and target cannot be had. 

During the years 1910 and 191 1 I had available for my practice 
an excellent indoor gallery range which permitted firing up to 100 
yards. I did a large amount of firing and experimental work on 
this range. Most of the work was done with two rifles. One was 
a Winchester single shot for the .22-long rifle cartridge. This rifle 
had a 27-inch, No. 3, round barrel, and weighed 9 pounds. It was 
equipped with gun-sling, set triggers, and a Winchester, type A, 5- 
power telescope sight. The other rifle was a standard Model 1903 
military rifle, equipped with a Lyman No. 48 rear sight, with large 
cup disc. This rifle was also arranged so that the Winchester telescope 
sight could be fitted to it. Various kinds of reduced charges were 
used in the Model 1903 rifle. All the shooting for experimental pur- 
poses was done from a very steady muzzle and elbow rest, and all 
shooting was by artificial light. 



512 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



In the experiments with the .22-caliber rifle it was found that the 
various makes of .22-ealiber long rifle ammunition differed consider- 
ably in accuracy. The very best results with this rifle were obtained 
with a certain lot of Peters .22-long rifle cartridges loaded without 
crimp, especially for indoor rifle competition. I had obtained 3000 
rounds of this lot all loaded on one machine from one lot of semi- 
smokeless powder, on one day. Other ammunition shot with various 
degrees, of accuracy. Experiments with other .22-caliber rifles showed 
conclusively that each rifle had its own peculiarities, and that one 
rifle would do its best work with one particular lot, or make, of 
ammunition, and which lot could only be told by experimenting. 
Another Winchester barrel, to all appearances exactly like my own, 
did its best work with Winchester crimped ammunition fresh from 
the factory. The following tabulation shows the results obtained 
with my rifle with Winchester, U. M. C, and Peters long rifle ammuni- 
tion. The group measurement is the average of ten consecutive groups 
of ten shots each. The elevation and windage figures show the cor- 
rect setting of the No. 2 rear mount, it being remembered that one 
point on this sight is equivalent to an adjustment of one-half a 
minute of angle. As the wind gauge is moved to the right the read- 
ings increase. The groups were measured from center to center of 
shot holes farthest apart. The height of the cross-hairs of the 
telescope above the axis of the bore was \Vi inches. 

TABLE OF SIGHT ADJUSTMENT AND ACCURACY 

.22 caliber Winchester single-shot rifle. Winchester A5 telescope sight. No. 2 
rear mount. .22-caliber long rifle cartridges. Shot from rest. 





25 yards 50 yards 


100 yards 


Ammunition 


W^ 


. a 


0. 
. 

u a 

Oh 

•75 
.90 
.60 


(3^ 




0. 

u a 

Oh 


v c 


a 


a 

3 
• 


Rem.-U. M. C. Lesmok. . . . 


71 
71 
69 


61V2 

62 

60 


72 
76 

72 


61% 

62 
59 


1-95 
2.00 
1.30 


84 
92% 

86 J /2 


62 
61 
58 


396 
4-03 


Peters Semi-smokeless 


2.61 



Further tests showed that freshly loaded ammunition was always 
superior to ammunition that had been in store for some time, and 
that there is considerable deterioration in .22-caliber ammunition that 
has been held in store over one summer. 

The results obtained with the Model 1903 rifle are shown in the 
tabulation below. Most of the firing was done at 100 yards, and for 
comparison the results obtained at that range with the lot of Win- 



GALLERY SHOOTING 



513 



chester 150-grain ammunition with full charge selected for use in the 
national matches during the year 191 1 are given, and also the results 
with a full-charged load that I was using at that time for game shoot- 
ing. The sight readings are minutes of angle on the Lyman No. 48 
rear sight. 

TABLE OF SIGHT ADJUSTMENT AND ACCURACY 
United States rifle, Model of 1903, 100 yards, rest. 



Ammunition 



Winchester 150-grain service, 1911 National Match .. 
170-grain spitzer soft-point. 46 grains Du Pont No. 20 
Ideal bullet No. 308334. 25 grains Hercules Lightning 
Ideal bullet No. 308241. ioMj grains Du Pont No. 75 
Service jacketed spitzer bullet, 17 grains Du Pont 
No. 75 powder | 11 




CHAPTER XXXI 
EQUIPMENT FOR OUTDOOR RANGE SHOOTING 

AFTER the beginner has learned the essentials of rifle shooting, 
has learned to co-ordinate the essentials in position and aiming 
drills, and has had some experience in gallery shooting, or at short 
range with a light rifle, he is ready to progress to outdoor-range shoot- 
ing. Outdoor-range shooting may be called the college course of rifle 
shooting. It is here that the novice will learn the lessons that fit 
him to go out into the open with his rifle. It is here that the real 
science of shooting is developed and practiced. And it is here that 
we find the sport of rifle shooting most keenly developed. Outdoor- 
range shooting is essential for every rifleman. Even the expert shot 
finds it necessary to do considerable practice on the range to keep 
in form, and to learn and keep track of the peculiarities of his rifle. 

An outdoor range may consist of anything from an extemporized 
arrangement consisting of a target nailed to a board, to a complete 
military range with its pits for markers, target carriers, firing points, 
telephone communications, etc. The construction of outdoor ranges 
will be taken up in Chapter XLIII. An outdoor range may be any 
distance from ioo to 1200 yards, but is seldom less than 200 yards. 

A certain equipment is necessary for the rifleman who takes up 
out-door range shooting. The various articles of this equipment are 
enumerated and discussed here, the list including all the articles neces- 
sary for the shooting of the expert at both long and short range, 
and in practice as well as competitions. Not all of them are needed 
by the sportsman who simply practices outdoors to keep his hand in 
for the hunting season, nor are all of them always permitted in com- 
petitions and straight military shooting. Each rifleman can choose 
those which are necessary for his particular purpose. 

CLOTHING 

No special clothing is required for shooting, although if it be military 
shooting the participants will be required to wear the service uniform, 
including cartridge belt. Clothing for shooting should be loose and 
free, particularly around the arms, chest, and upper back. If a coat 

5i4 



EQUIPMENT FOR OUTDOOR RANGE SHOOTING 515 

or blouse be worn, it should be wide across the shoulders and upper 
back so that it does not bind when one assumes the prone position. 
It should be such that it will not be injured by lying on the ground. 
Most riflemen prefer to shoot in a flannel shirt. The elbows should 
be slightly padded to prevent the point of the elbow becoming sore 
from contact with the ground in the prone position. Several thick- 
nesses of flannel, covered by one of chamois skin, is usually sufficient. 
The novice will usually find it advantageous similarly to pad the right 
shoulder to protect the shoulder from recoil, but the experienced marks- 
man will not need this, and for him a covering of the shoulder with 
a piece of chamois skin to prevent the slipping of the butt plate will 
suffice. Much padding leads to clumsiness and a poor position. Some 
men will require a small piece of M-inch rope sewed on the inside 
of the shirt or coat sleeve. This should be sewed on the inside of 
the back of the sleeve slightly below the arm pit, and makes a ridge 
above which the sling loop is placed when shooting prone, prevent- 
ing the sling from slipping down to the elbow. The neck should be 
absolutely free, and it is best to open the top button of the collar of 
the shirt. 

RIFLES 

The rifle should be equipped with military or Whelen pattern gun- 
sling, and with adjustable sights. Before starting to fire, the bore 
should be carefully wiped free from all oil and grease, and the action 
should be slightly lubricated with thin oil, like sperm oil. If the shoot- 
ing is to be on the conventional black and white target, the sights 
should be blackened. 

SIGHT BLACK 

One cannot do good work with sights which glisten or shine. It is 
always best to blacken them. Sights may be blackened in the smoke 
of burning camphor, or a kerosene or acetylene lamp or torch, the 
flame of a candle, or even a match, or in the woods they may be nicely 
blackened in the smoke of burning pitch pine. Also a liquid sight 
black can be made as follows : 

Ivory Black, "B" in Japan, (a black paste procurable from dealers 

in painters supplies) 5 ounces. 

Gasolene, 76 test 12 ounces. 

Add the gasolene little by little to the paste, mixing thoroughly after each 
addition. If it is found too dry with any gloss whatever there is too much 
" binder " in the paste ; to correct this, add to the paste a little powdered lamp 
black, and work up thoroughly with the first portion of gasolene that is added. 
This mixture will dry on the sights in a few seconds. 



516 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Before attempting to blacken the sights, whether with smoke or 
liquid sight black, always wipe all traces of oil and dirt off of them. 
Do not blacken the entire rear sight, but only that portion around 
the peep hole or notch, leaving the elevation and windage scales 
without black so that they can be easily read. 

AMMUNITION 

Ammunition for use on the target range should be kept in some 
container where they will be kept clean, and away from sand, dirt, 
and hot sun. The cartridges are usually kept in the cartridge belt, 
or else in a " dope " or shooting bag. 

SHOOTING BAG 

Many riflemen who shoot extensively carry a shooting bag, usually 
called a " dope " bag, to the range with them. This bag carries all 
the articles used on the range with the exception of the rifle. A con- 
venient bag is a small " dress suit case," about 10 inches wide, 14 inches 
long, and 4 inches deep. Sometimes compartments and loops are made 
in it for the various articles. A number of dealers in rifleman's 
supplies import special leather shooting bags from England which are 
very convenient. 

mo'bilubricant 

The users of high-power rifles usually carry a grease called Mobi- 
lubricant with which to grease their bullets before firing in order to 
reduce the amount of metal fouling deposited in the bore. (See 
Chapter XXII.) Mobilubricant can be carried in any small can, but is 
easiest applied in just the correct amount if contained in a little box 
called the " Spitzer Greaser " which can he obtained from dealers in 
riflemen's supplies. 

SCORE BOOK 

A score book is absolutely essential if one would learn and re- 
member anything from his practice. A score book is not, as its name 
would imply, a book to keep the score alone in. It is intended chiefly 
to record the weather conditions, the elevation and windage used, the 
point on the target where the shot was called, and where it struck, 
and any details regarding rifle, ammunition, and the rifleman himself. 
It is really a ballistic record. There are a number of good score books 
on the market such as the " Bull's-eye Score Book," the " Marine 
Corps Score Book," or one can obtain from the Superintendent of 



EQUIPMENT FOR OUTDOOR RANGE SHOOTING 517 

Public Documents, Washington, D. C, a copy of the official Army 
score book entitled " Soldier's Handbook of the Rifle and Score Book," 
by the author of this work. This last book is published in two edi- 
tions, one for the Model of 1903 rifle, and the other for the Model 
19 17 rifle, and is arranged for the course prescribed in the United 
States Army. Special score books can be arranged for any particular 
kind of firing or practice. Every score book should have a pencil 
with it. 

MICROMETER SIGHT ADJUSTER 

This little instrument is absolutely essential for the best work 
at ranges over 500 yards when using the Model 1903 rifle. The 
hands and eyes alone cannot set the rear sight with a sufficient degree 
of fineness. It can be obtained from most dealers in riflemen's sup- 
plies. This instrument is not needed if one is using the No. 48 or 
103 Lyman sights, or the Winchester telescope sight with No. 2 rear 
mounting. 

TELESCOPE 

For long-range shooting a high-power telescope is absolutely 
essential. It is needed to see the mirage which gives the best indi- 
cation of the wind currents at long range. The power of the telescope 
should be 20 diameters or over. For seeing the bullet holes in the 
black portion of the target at 200 yards a power of 40 diameters is 
necessary. The writer has used for many years with excellent re- 
sults a glass made by Bardou of Paris, magnifying 33 diameters, which 
cost $17.50 from Montgomery, Ward & Co., Chicago, in 1903. Sev- 
eral English firms make excellent rifle-range telescopes, some of them 
having a device which allows, various powers from 30 to 40 diameters 
to be used at will. 

TELESCOPE RESTS 

The telescope is used mounted alongside of the rifleman as he shoots 
in the prone position, usually on his right side, and almost parallel 
to the rifle barrel. To hold it in this position telescope rests are used. 
The rests hold the focused glass trained on the target. At any time, 
even when the rifleman is sighting, a slight turn of the head is all 
that is necessary to give him a view of the target through the telescope. 
Many elaborate rests have been designed for this purpose, but the 
best is simply two iron rods, about */4 inch in diameter, and 15 inches 
long, pointed at the lower end, and with a fork or " U " at the upper 
end. They are simply stuck in the ground in approximately the cor- 



5i8 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



rect position, the telescope opened out and placed on them. The 
telescope is focused on the target, and the rods moved slightly so that 
the glass stays trained on the target. 



RIFLE REST 



This is a small metal fork, somewhat like the telescope rest, but 
thicker and sturdier. It is placed in the ground just in front of where 



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tgt-i 


* ;v--^*»»--'*" 


'■ y" : 


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JSt" 


'■"y& 


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i 


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Fig. 139 
Firing point equipped for military shooting, showing telescope, rifle, rifle rest, 
score book, micrometer sight adjuster, and ammunition in position, and holes 
correctly made in the firing point for the elbows 

the left hand will be when the rifle is held in the prone position. 
When one is not shooting the barrel of the rifle is rested in the fork 
in this rest, and the butt placed on the ground. This keeps the rifle 
standing straight up, only the toe of the butt touching the ground. 
The muzzle of the rifle does not get in the dirt. Grass does not wipe 






EQUIPMENT FOR OUTDOOR RANGE SHOOTING 519 

the black off the sights. The hands are left free to handle the score 
book, ammunition, and sights. The left wrist is not under constant 
strain from holding the rifle up. Rifle rests can be obtained from any 
dealer in riflemen's supplies. 

SHOOTING GLASSES 

If one's eyes are normal, shooting glasses are of no assistance at 
all. Rather they are a handicap. If one has to wear glasses to 
obtain perfect vision, the glasses for shooting purposes should be 
equipped with " toric " lenses, preferably of amber color. The 
lenses should be very large, and should be contained in a spectacle 
frame of rustless metal. The glasses should be so adjusted that 
when aiming one looks through the lens as far from the rim as pos- 
sible. Several optical firms make a specialty of shooting glasses for 
sportsmen. 

CLEANING MATERIALS 

As a usual thing the rifle will not require cleaning on the range. 
It is usually best to defer this until reaching one's home where all 
the facilities for a thorough cleaning are at hand. However, a rifle 
using black powder must be cleaned frequently to obtain the best 
results, also a rifle that has been shot with high-power ammunition 
will not do good shooting with a reduced load and lead alloy bullet 
until it has been thoroughly cleaned, so that it may sometimes be 
necessary to carry cleaning materials in one's range kit. This matter 
will be discussed in Chapter XLII. 



CHAPTER XXXII 
ELEVATION 

WE have seen in Chapter XVI that a rifle is not always cor- 
rectly sighted for a given range when the sights are set at the 
exact elevation as marked on the sights. Also an ordinary sporting 
rifle is not always correctly sighted for the range it is supposed to 
be when the rear sight is at its lowest elevation. The conditions 
which cause these differences may make it necessary to set the rear 
sight for elevation as much as 150 yards off the mark. That is, if 
we are shooting at 500 yards, it may be necessary to set the rear 
sight at 350 yards or at 650 yards in order to strike the bull's-eye with 
a normal aim. Or if the rifle be a sporting model with ordinary open 
sights, and supposed to be sighted for 100 yards when the rear sight 
is placed in its lowest position, it may shoot as much as 7 or 8 inches 
off the mark. If differences much greater than this are found it is 
likely that the rifle has suffered some injury. The rifle may have been 
allowed to fall at some time, thus springing or bending the barrel or 
sights, or there may be a slight injury or wearing of the rifling at the 
muzzle. It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the rifleman that he 
must take the best care of his weapon. Particularly he should never 
allow it to fall, and he should guard the muzzle and sights carefully. 
See that the muzzle of the bore receives no wear in the process of 
cleaning the bore, for if the sharp corners of the lands and grooves 
at the muzzle are worn or injured there will be a considerable change 
in where the rifle shoots. A worn muzzle does not necessarily mean 
an inaccurate rifle, but it does usually mean one which will shoot 
'way off from its normal sighting. 

If the rifle has received anything like fair treatment since it left 
the factory or arsenal, it should shoot quite close to the mark, provided 
proper and good ammunition is used. Thus if the rifleman sets his 
sights at the indicated range, and does his part of holding, aiming, 
and trigger pull correctly, his first shot will almost surely strike a 
target the size of the regulation military target at ranges up to 600 
yards. He can then make the correction in sight adjustment neces- 
sary to hit the bull's-eye with the next shot. Once he has found the 

520 



ELEVATION 521 

correct elevation for a certain range he should record it in his score 
book, together with all the conditions as to ammunition, weather, etc., 
pertaining when the shot was fired. The correct elevation found for 
a given range under good and average weather conditioas, with good 
ammunition, is termed the " normal elevation " for that range. 

A rifle may slightly change its normal elevation from time to time. 
A new rifle will change its elevation a little during the firing of the 
first 100 shots or so, when the bore is losing the polish given to it 
by the tools with which it was bored and rifled, and taking on the 
polish it receives from the passage of the bullets through it. Also 
during this period the rifle is being pounded down to a set position 
in the stock. It is necessary to see that the guard screws, and other 
screws fastening the stock and forearm to the action, are kept screwed 
up very tight. A rifle with a loose stock will shoot all over the 
landscape. With a military rifle having a long forearm it is necessary 
to see that the wood under the upper band does not bind the barrel 
and interfere with its free expansion and lengthening as it heats up 
from firing. In a dry climate ordinarily no attention is necessary to 
this, but if the rifle be taken into a very damp climate the stock will 
swell, and then it will be necessary to dismount the rifle and work 
down the wood under the upper band with a piece of sandpaper in 
the groove where the barrel lies. This should not be overdone ; it 
should be just possible to move the barrel very slightly where the 
upper band grips it. 

A black powder rifle usually requires cleaning every five or ten shots 
to do its best work. A .22-caliber rifle using Lesmok or semi-smoke- 
less powder should be cleaned after about every 50 rounds. But a 
high-power smokeless powder rifle should shoot well, and maintain 
its normal elevation very closely, provided it is not shot fast enough 
to became abnormally hot, or it is not so roughly bored that it ac- 
cumulates a large quantity of metal fouling. If a rifle barrel gets 
very hot it is liable to shoot high and require a reduction in eleva- 
tion of the rear sight, but it may shoot off in any direction, depend- 
ing much on the steel of the barrel, and whether the bore has been 
hammered to straighten it during the process of manufacture. 
Ordinary heating such as would occur through the firing of 20 shots 
in 10 minutes, or even one string of rapid fire (firing 10 shots in 1 
minute) should make no difference in the normal elevation of a good 
barrel. If a rifle throws its shots farther and farther from the mark 
as it heats up from firing at an ordinary rate, if it starts to shoot 



522 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

higher and higher, or departs in some other direction from its normal, 
it is usually a sign that either the bore is not straight, or it has been 
bored crooked at the factory and then hammered to straighten it. 
A properly bored barrel shot with good ammunition will not accumu- 
late enough metal fouling during an ordinary day's shooting on the 
range to cause it to depart from its normal elevation. 

An accurate rifle, using the best ammunition with weighed powder 
charges, should hold its elevation to within 3 minutes of angle at 
ranges up to 1000 yards. That is, at 200 yards the shots should 
not string up and down more than 6 inches, at 500 yards 15 inches, 
and at 1000 yards 30 inches. Some rifles will do much better than 
this. A high-power Pope barrel for the .30-caliber Model 1906 car- 
tridge will frequently hold its elevation within 1V2 minutes of angle. 

The elevation is also influenced by atmospheric conditions. Some 
of these atmospheric conditions which may influence the elevation 
are as follows : 

Temperature. On a hot day the rifle will shoot slightly higher, and 
will require a slightly lower elevation of the rear sight. The reverse 
pertains on a day colder than normal. Ammunition which has been 
allowed to lie in the sun on a hot day long enough to get very hot is 
also liable to shoot high. 

Barometer. The lower the barometer, the higher the rifle will shoot, 
and the less will be the elevation required. Low-velocity rifles and 
black-powder rifles are more influenced by changes in barometer than 
rifles of very high velocity. Rifles having velocities of 2700 feet per 
second and over are only influenced about half as much by changes 
in barometer as rifles with velocities around 2000 feet per second. 
At high altitudes a rifle will shoot higher and require a lower setting 
of the rear sight than it does at the sea level. 

Mirage. Mirage or heat waves apparently make the target dance 
or simmer. The atmosphere appears to boil, and the target and bull's- 
eye appear blurred. The blurred bull's-eye looks larger than a 
sharply defined -bull's-eye seen at times when there is no mkage. In 
trying to aim the correct distance below the bull's-eye the rifleman 
naturally aims a little lower on a blurred bull's-eye, hence his shot 
strikes a little lower on the target. Therefore when mirage is present 
a slightly higher elevation will usually be necessary. Ordinary mirage 
does not displace or drift the image of the target. 

Light. Differences in light make almost no difference when the peep 
sight is used. If the rifleman be wearing amber-colored glasses and 



ELEVATION 523 

using the peep-sight, changes in light will not make the slightest dif- 
ference and may be entirely disregarded. With the open sight light 
sometimes has considerable effect on the elevation on account of the 
difference in the appearance of the sights in different lights. Differ- 
ent conditions of light may affect individuals differently, depending 
much on the strength and vision of the eyes, so that it is impossible 
to prescribe any exact rule. The light may be very bright, ordinary 
sunlight, dull, dark, or very dark over the entire range. We may 
have a target strongly illuminated by sunlight or under the shade 
of a cloud or some object, and we have bright or shaded sights, and 
all combinations of these. The effect of light with open sights must 
be found by each individual for himself, and the best way to do it is 
to keep a complete record of the light in the score book, so that after 
a number of scores have been fired the effect of the light can be 
determined by the elevation used and the place where the shot struck 
the target in that particular light. The best way to record the light in 
the score book is, " B-B " equals bright firing point and bright target ; 
" B-D " equals bright firing point and dull target, etc. 

Ammunition. Differences in ammunition of course make a large 
difference in the elevation required. High-power ammunition almost 
always requires a lower elevation in a certain rifle than do reduced 
loads. Differences on lots of ammunition to all intents and purposes 
practically the same sometimes make a change in elevation neces- 
sary. One can usually rely on all ammunition packed in one original 
box of 1000 or 1200 rounds at the factory being from one lot and 
made on one machine on one day. The kind of ammunition, and if 
possible the date of loading, should always be recorded in the score 
book, unless one is shooting his entire practice with one lot. Ammuni- 
tion for the .30-caliber Model 1903 rifle manufactured during peace 
times is very constant and regular in its elevations, and when using 
it only very slight changes in elevation will usually be found neces- 
sary when changing from one lot to another. But if one were to 
change from this ammunition to another of the same caliber, but made 
by a private manufacturer, particularly if a different weight bullet is 
used, the change in elevation required might be considerable. For 
example, with the .30-40 cartridge fired in a heavy No. 3 barrel which 
is much less subject to slight changes in elevation from differences 
of ammunition than is a light military or hunting barrel, and using 
Winchester, U. M. C, Peters, and U. S. C. Co. ammunition, all loaded 
with a 220-grain, soft-point bullet, and all said to give a velocity at 



524 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

the muzzle of 2000 feet per second, it was found that there was a 
difference in the point of impact between two makes of as much as 
5% inches at 100 yards. 

Winds. Head winds, that is, those blowing from the target towards 
the firer, require additional elevation. Rear winds require a lower 
elevation. The effect of these winds at ranges up to 1000 yards is 
very small, and scarcely ever need be taken into account. 

Positions. The position assumed by the rifleman influences the 
elevation considerably. In the prone position with tight gun-sling 
pulling down on the barrel, the rifle shoots lower than when held in 
any other way, but probably shoots more consistently if care be taken 
to get the same amount of tension on the sling each time, and to receive 
the recoil on the shoulder in the same way. In practice, however, 
there is very little difference in shooting at a bull's-eye target between 
the elevation in the prone position and that required for the stand- 
ing position, because in the latter position one does not hold as steadily, 
and hence naturally holds a little farther below the bull's-eye with a 
little more of the white target showing between the top of his front 
sight and the bottom of his bull's-eye so that he can get a clearer view 
of the bull's-eye as his sights bob and travel over the surface of the 
target. When firing with a sand-bag or other rest the rifle shoots 
higher and requires a lower elevation. These differences depend so 
much upon the manner in which the rifleman holds, the manner in 
which he takes up the recoil, and the nature and position of the rest 
if any is used, that no general rule can be given. In some cases the 
differences may be so small that they can only be noticed by a very 
expert rifleman equipped with an exceptionally accurate rifle. Under 
other conditions that may make two or three feet difference at 500 
yards, and proportionately at other ranges. 

Oil in the bore. In the preceding chapter directions were given to 
wipe all the oil from the bore before beginning to fire. It is wise to 
do so. If the bore be heavily coated with a thick grease the first 
shot is liable to fly high and wild. Light oils like " 3 in 1 " and sperm 
oil do not have this effect as a rule, and if the bore of a high-power 
rifle be free from heavy grease the point of impact of the first shot 
from a clean bore, and of succeeding shots will be practically the 
same. If the bore of a .22-caliber rifle, or of a black-powder rifle be 
clean, and even slightly oiled with a light oil the first shot will almost 
always strike high on the target. 

As a general rule the elevation is influenced very little by atmos- 



ELEVATION 525 

pheric conditions because a change in one condition is usually ac- 
companied by an opposite change in some other condition. For 
example, an increase in temperature is usually accompanied by a certain 
amount of mirage. Occasionally, however, conditions combine to 
make a big change in elevation necessary. Suppose that the weather 
on a certain range has been generally cool, but on a certain day it be- 
comes very hot, the barometer drops, and a strong rear wind sets 
in to blow. Such conditions would cause the shot to go way over 
the top of the target if one were shooting at 1000 yards, using only 
the normal elevation and not taking into account the changed con- 
ditions. The normal elevation should always be used for the first 
shot of a score unless conditions clearly indicate that a change in eleva- 
tion is desirable. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 
ZERO 

THE " zero " of a rifle is the point at which the wind gauge must 
be set in order to have a perfectly pulled shot strike in a perpen- 
dicular line running through the center of the bull's-eye on a day when 
there is no wind, and when the sun is directly overhead, or else not 
showing in the sky. This zero should of course coincide with the 
zero on the wind-gauge scale, but owing to the differences in aiming 
and holding of the individual, the peculiarities of different rifles, etc., 
it often varies a little to one side or another. This zero of the rifle 
is the point from which all windage allowances must be figured. For 
example, if a certain wind requires an allowance of " I point right " 
on the wind gauge of the Model 1903 rifle, and the zero of the rifle 
is a half a point right, then the wind-gauge must be set to read 1% 
points right. Similarly, if one point left wind is required to allow 
for the breeze, and the zero is V2 right, the wind gauge must be set at 
only ^ point left. 

There are two ways of finding the zero. First, the rifle may be 
shot on a day when there is no wind blowing, and when the sun is 
either directly overhead or the sky is overcast, and the reading of 
the wind gauge which gives shots in or near a perpendicular line 
through the center of the bull's-eye taken as the zero. This method is 
the surest, but is open to the objection that on some rifle ranges a 
day with no wind is very rare. The second method is to shoot the 
unknown rifle alongside of some good shot who is using a rifle that 
he knows the zero of, and then comparing the two wind-gauge read- 
ings. 

The reason for being so particular about the direction of the sun 
is that if it be shining on one side of the front sight, the rifle will 
shoot away from that side. This is even true of a perfectly black 
military sight, and the difference is considerable if one is using a 
bead front sight which is tapered or rounded towards the eye. With 
the black sight on the United States rifle, Model of 1903, if the sun 
is behind a cloud, and then comes out, lighting up the right side only 
of the front sight, it requires the wind gauge to be moved about a 

S26 



ZERO 



527 



quarter of a point to the right to compensate for seeing the right side 
of the sight more clearly than the left. 

If the beginner is using the Model 1903 rifle he need not worry 
about the zero because it will seldom be off more than half a point, and 
this is not enough to cause him to miss the target. A half a point 
on the Model 1903 rifle only makes a difference of 10 inches at 500 
yards and proportionately at other ranges. His first shot will strike 
the target, and then he can adjust his sights to the correct setting. 
The military shot should, however, always learn his zero very ac- 
curately before he begins rapid fire, because while in slow fire he has 
a chance to correct his windage after the first or any succeeding shot, 
in rapid fire he does not have this chance, and if the sights are not 
set right for wind, not only will the first shot go wrong, but all the 
others also. For a military rifle 500 yards is the best range at which 
to determine the zero, and for a hunting rifle, 200 yards. 

When the rifleman knows the normal elevation and zero of his 
rifle he is prepared for accurate shooting, for qualification, for com- 
petition, or he is ready to take that rifle into the field after game. 
Until these are determined his shooting must be largely experimental, 
or, as it is termed in the " Small Arms Firing Manual of the Army," 
" instruction practice." The experienced rifleman, if he is starting 
the season's practice with a new rifle, shoots it carefully at all ranges, 
keeping all the while every speck of data most carefully in his score 
book. In a few days he will be able to determine absolutely his eleva- 
tions and zero from this data. He then knows his rifle. Some men 
trust to memory in these matters, but their shooting can never be 
absolutely relied upon, nor are they ever found among the prize 
winners in a big match. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 
WINDAGE AND WINDS 

THE wind is the greatest disturbing factor to the flight of the 
bullet that the rifleman has to contend with. The effect of the 
wind blowing on the side of a bullet flying through the air is to cause 
it to travel slightly with the wind. Thus if a wind coming from the 
shooter's right is blowing on the right side of the bullet, the bullet 
will drift to the left, and instead of hitting the bull's-eye it will strike 
over toward the left side of the target. To compensate for this we 
must either aim to the right or adjust our wind gauge to the right. 
The target and military shot always uses his wind gauge and never 
aims off for wind allowance, but there is seldom time for the hunter 
to do this, and he must aim a little to one side or the other. It remains 
to be seen just how much to adjust the wind gauge, or how far to 
one side to hold to allow for a certain velocity and direction of wind. 

Wind will affect a large bullet more than it will a small one, and 
it will affect a slow flying one more than it will one flying at high 
velocity. In the first case the wind has more surface to act against, and 
in the second case it has more time to act on a bullet at low velocity 
than on one travelling rapidly, because the slow bullet will be exposed 
much longer in travelling the same distance. The exact wind allow- 
ance for the various military cartridges, has been very carefully cal- 
culated and tables of allowances prepared which are appended to this 
chapter. No such tables, however, have ever been computed for purely 
sporting cartridges, but today sporting cartridges so much resemble 
those used for military purposes that it is usually possible to use one 
of the military tables, making slight allowances where the velocities 
or size of the bullet differ considerably. 

In speaking of the direction of the wind riflemen consider the 
rifle range as they would the dial of a clock with the target at 12 
o'clock and the firing point at 6 o'clock. Thus a wind blowing from 
the right at exactly right angles to the line of fire would be called a 
3 o'clock wind, and a wind blowing straight towards the rifleman would 
be a 12 o'clock wind. A 3 or 9 o'clock wind has the greatest deviating 
effect on the bullet because these winds strike the bullet squarely on 

528 



WINDAGE AND WINDS 529 

its side, and this defect decreases as the direction approaches 12 or 
6 o'clock, until when the wind is in either of these latter directions 
it causes no lateral drift to the bullet at all. A 2, 4, 8, or 10 o'clock 
wind has about seven-eights of the effect on a bullet that a 3 or 9 
o'clock wind would, and a 1, 5, 7, or 11 o'clock wind has about half 
the deviating effect of a 3 or 9 o'clock wind. Winds blowing from 
3 or 9 o'clock have exactly the same deviating effect, although of course 
in exactly opposite directions. Similarly 2, 4, 8, and 10 o'clock winds, 
and 1, 5, 7, and 11 o'clock winds have each the same deviating effect. 

The direction of the wind can be told by holding a light string in the 
fingers and watching in which direction it blows out, by lighting a 
match, or by a puff of smoke if the wind is very light, by throwing 
grass into the air and watching the direction in which it is blown. 
If the wind is fairly strong its direction can instantly be told by facing 
towards the wind until it seems to whistle equally past both ears ; 
one will then be facing squarely into the wind. Holding up a wet 
finger and noting the cold side is another old trick. 

Estimation of the velocity of the wind will always remain largely 
a matter of guess work because no instruments or flags with which 
to measure it are allowed on the rifle range in military rifle shooting, 
and even if it were possible to have an anemometer alongside one 
while firing it would give only the velocity of the wind at the firing 
point, whereas the bullet is most effected by the wind directly in front 
of the target. What appears to be a very steady wind is in reality 
constantly varying from 3 to 6 miles per hour, and is seldom the same 
at any point, over a range of several hundred yards. Much can be 
learned by experience, and some few men become almost uncanny in 
their ability to estimate wind velocity. To say that a certain coach 
or shot is a good " wind doper " is to pay a high compliment. The 
velocity of the wind is measured in miles per hour. A wind blowing 
at 2 miles per hour is probably the lightest wind that will make itself 
manifest to the ordinary man. Up to 5 miles per hour one would 
call a wind gentle or light. From 5 to 10 miles per hour it becomes 
a nice breeze. From 10 to 15 miles is a stiff breeze. Fifteen to 20 
miles per hour is a very strong wind, while anything over 20 miles 
per hour is in the nature of a gale, and it is hardly worth trying to 
shoot. Estimating the wind in this way the target shot or military 
rifleman will come close enough to it so that if he sets his wind-gauge 
in accordance with the tables he will be sure to get the first shot on 
the target, and usually pretty nearly correct for the wind. He can 



530 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

then make the corrections necessary to carry his point of impact into 
the bull's-eye. In the case of military rifle shooting with the .30- 
caliber Model 1903 rifle, suppose the wind is blowing from 3 o'clock, 
a rather stiff breeze, and the rifleman is about to fire at 500 yards. 
A stiff breeze is from 10 to 15 miles per hour. Let us estimate this 
at 12 miles. The rifleman turns to the table of wind allowances for 
this rifle (Model 1906 ammunition) and using the "3 or 9 o'clock" 
column, follows it down to the 500 yard space and there looks for 
a 12-mile wind. The table shows this to require an allowance of 
i 1 ^ points. He sets the wind-gauge 1% points right from the zero of 
the rifle, and enough allowance will have been made to insure the first 
shot hitting the target, in fact it will probably come pretty near strik- 
ing in a vertical line passing through the bull's-eye. In this case the 
table has been arranged for the wind-gauge on the United States 
magazine rifle, Model 1903. On this rifle the smallest division on the 
wind-gauge, called a " point," has a value of 4 inches per 100 yards. 
That is to say, moving the wind-gauge one point will move the point 
of impact four inches at 100 yards and proportionately at other ranges. 
In the example used above, i 1 ^ points has a value of 30 inches at 500 
yards. By carefully recording wind directions, approximate velocities, 
the allowance one makes on the sight or by holding off, the length 
of the range, and the exact point where the shot fired under these 
conditions has struck, and then carefully studying these records, any 
one can quickly become a fair wind doper. 

The range at which the big game hunter fires is almost always under 
300 yards. With a modern, high-velocity rifle, like one using the .30- 
caliber, Model 1906 cartridge, it is seldom necessary at a short range 
like this to make any allowance for the wind. With this cartridge 
a 3 o'clock wind at 12 miles per hour would require an allowance 
of only about 9 inches at 300 yards. With the .30-30 rifle and the 
same wind and range an allowance of about 36 inches. The .30-40- 
220 rifle would require about 27 inches, and the .405 W. C. F. about 
the same as the .30-30. 

The hardest condition of all for the target and military shot to 
shoot in is when a " fish-tail " wind is blowing. The direction of the 
wind is never absolutely constant, it always varies a little bit in the 
direction from which it comes. What we call a 3 o'clock wind will 
vary from 2 130 to 3 130 o'clock. If the wind happens to be a stiff 
one from 12 or 6 o'clock it will shift a little from one side to the 
other, and often these shifts come so quickly that one cannot see 



WINDAGE AND WINDS 



53i 



them soon enough to allow for them. In a stiff breeze, 10 to 15 miles 
per hour, a wind from 6 130 o'clock has enough deviating effect to make 
necessary quite a little allowance. If one allows for such a wind, 
and when he is aiming the wind suddenly shifts to 5 130 o'clock, which 
it can do very easily without the ordinary man being aware of it, 
the marksman is going to find his shot way over on one side of the 

TABLE OF WIND ALLOWANCES 

.30 caliber Model 1898 cartridge (.30-40). 220-grain blunt bullet. Velocity 
i960 feet per second. 

Arranged in inches' deflection and points of windage on the Model 1901 rear 
sight for the .30-caliber United States magazine rifle, Model of 1898 (Krag). 





Force of 

wind 
in miles 
per hour 


Number of inches bullet is deflected at target, and 
number of points on wind gauge necessary to correct 


Distance 


By 

1,5,7 and 1 1 
o'clock winds 


By 

2, 4, 8 and 10 
o'clock winds 


By 

3 and 9 o'clock 

winds 




Inches 
deflec- 
tion 


Points 

on wind 

gauge 


Inches 
deflec- 
tion' 


Points 

on wind 

gauge 


Inches 
deflec- 
tion 


Points 

on wind 

gauge 


200 Yards 
1 point on wind gauge 
gives 12 inches cor- 
rection at target. 


4 

8 

12 

16 

20 


2 
4 
6 
8 
IO 


Vi 

% 

73 

% 


4 

8 
12 
16 
20 


Vi 

% 
I 

1% 
1% 


5 
10 

15 
20 

25 


y 2 

I 

iVi 
1% 

2 


500 Yards 
1 point = 30 inches 


4 

8 

12 

16 

20 


8 
16 
24 
32 
40 


% 
% 

% 

I 

173 


16 
32 
48 
64 
80 


72 
I 

1V2 
2% 

2% 


20 
40 
60 
80 
100 


73 
1% 
2 

2^3 
3% 


600 Yards 
1 point = 36 inches 


4 

8 

12 

16 

20 


11 
21 

" 31 
42 

52 


73 
% 
1 

1% 
1Y2 


21 
42 
62 
S3 
104 


73 
1% 
1% 
2 ] /2 

3 


26 

52 

78 

104 

130 


73 
1% 
2% 

3 

373 


800 Yards 
1 point = 48 inches 


4 

8 

12 

16 

20 


19 
39 
58 
77 
96 


% 

S A 

iVe 

1% 

2 


38 

77 

115 

154 

192 


% 
1% 
2% 
3% 
4 


48 

96 

144 

192 

240 


I 

2 

3 
4 

5 


900 Yards 
1 point = 54 inches 


4 

8 

12 

16 

20 


23 
45 
67 
90 
112 


% 
1% 

2 


45 

90 

134 

179 

224 


% 
173 
2% 
3% 

4?3 


56 
112 
168 
224 
280 


1 
2 

3 

4% 

5% 


1000 Yards 
1 point = 60 inches 


4 

8 

12 

16 

20 


29 

58 

87 

ii5 

144 


1 

lV2 
2 

2% 


58 
115 
173 
230 
288 


1 
2 

2% 
3% 
4% 


72 
144 
216 
288 
360 


1% 
2% 
3% 
4% 
6 



532 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



TABLE OF WIND ALLOWANCES 

.30 caliber Model 1906 cartridge in United States Model 1903 rifle 150-grain 

pointed bullet, M. V. 2700 feet per second. 



Range 
No. of inches correction 
at target correspond- 




Correction 


in points of 


windage for 
blowing i 


winds 
rom 


in m 


les pel 


hour 




1, 5 


7 or 


1 1 o'clock 


2, 4 


, 8 or 


10 o'c 


ock 


3 


or 9 


'clock 




ing to 1 point of 
windage on rear sight 
of U. S. Magazine 
Rifle, caliber .30, 
Model 1903. 


T3 


'0 


T3 


a 
"0 

Pn 




"S 

P-i 


13 

a 


'0 

Ph 


T3 
C 

2 


"3 


S3 


'0 

Ph 




2 


O 


12 


Vi 


2 





12 


y 2 





12 


y 2 


200 Yards 
1 point = 8 inches 


4 
6 
8 



O 

Vi 


14 
16 

t8 


Vi 
Vi 
Vi 


4 

6 
8 




Vi 
Vi 


14 
16 
18 


v 2 
y 2 
y 2 


4 
6 
8 


Vi 
Vi 
Vi 


14 
l6 
18 


y 2 
y 2 




10 


Vi 


20 


% 


10 


Vi 


20 


y 2 


10 


V2 


20 


% 




2 





12 


% 


2 





12 


94 


2 


Vi 


12 


3 a 


300 Yards 
I point = 12 inches 


4 
6 
8 


Vi 
Vi 

Vi 


14 
16 
18 




4 
6 
8 


Vi 
Vi 


14 
16 
18 


1 
1 


4 
6 
8 


Vi 

y 2 
y 2 


14 
16 
18 


1 

1 




10 


Vi 


20 


% 


10 


% 


20 


1 


10 


% 


20 


I a /4 




2 


Vi 


12 


% 


2 


% 


12 


1% 


2 


y 4 


12 


i Mi 


500 Yards 
1 point =-20 inches 


4 
6 

8 


Vi 
Vi 

V2 


14 
16 
t8 


1 
1 


4 
6 
8 


% 


14 

16 
18 


1% 

1% 
1% 


4 
6 
8 


y 2 
1 


14 
16 
18 


1% 
2 

2 1 /4 




10 


% 


20 


iVi 


10 


1 


20 


2 


10 


iVi 


20 


2% 




2 


Vi 


12 


1 


2 


% 


12 


1% 


2 


Vi 


12 


1% 


600 Yards 
I point = 24 inches 


4 
6 
8 


Vi 

V-2 

y 2 


14 
16 
18 


1 

iVi 
iVi 


4 
6 
8 


1 


14 
16 
18 


1% 
2 

2 1 /* 


4 
6 
8 


I 

1% 


14 
16 
18 


2 

2 y 2 
2% 




10 

2 


% 


20 


1 1/2 


10 


1% 


20 


2 % 


10 


1% 


20 


3 




Vi 


12 


1% 


2 


% 


12 


2 Vi 


2 


y 2 


12 


2 y 2 


800 Yards 
I point = 32 inches 


4 
6 
8 


V2 

% 


14 
16 

18 


1% 

I 3 /4 
2 


4 
6 
8 


% 
1 
1% 


14 
16 
18 


2 y 2 

3 
3% 


4 
6 
8 


% 
1% 

1% 


14 
16 
18 


3 

3 % 

4 




10 


I 


20 


2% 


10 


1% 


20 


3 % 


10 


2% 


20 


4 % 




2 


Vi 


12 


1% 


2 


y 2 


12 


3 


2 


y 2 


12 


31/2 


1,000 Yards 
I point = 40 inches 


4 
6 
8 


V-2 

s /i 

iVi 


14 
16 

18 


2 
2% 

2% 


4 
6 
8 


1 

iy 2 
2 


14 
16 

18 


3 y 2 

4 
4 y 2 


4 
6 
8 


iv 4 
1% 
2% 


14 
16 
18 


4 
4 y 2 




10 


IV2 


20 


3 


10 


2 y 2 


20 


s 


10 


2% 


20 


5 % 



target, or it may even miss the target. In effect, in this case, he has 
actually fired with an allowance for a left wind when he should have 
had an allowance for a right wind. If the rifleman be a novice and 
does not appreciate the fish-tail nature of the wind, he is apt to 
be all at sea. Such occurrences as this will play hob with a man's 
score, and there is no way out of it until one learns to use the telescope 
to judge wind drift which will be explained elsewhere. Firing in a 
strong fish-tail wind is apt to discourage the novice, and it is better 
not to attempt target shooting on such a day until one becomes expert. 



WINDAGE AND WINDS 



533 



An expert, as a rule, loves such a day because it gives him a chance 
to show his skill. 

The expert long-range shot judges slight changes in direction and 
velocity of the wind by means of the mirage. Mirage is the waves 
of heat, that bubbling or boiling of the atmosphere, which can be 
usually seen on a hot summer day. It is almost always present in 
the summer time, and although often so faint that it cannot be seen 
with the naked eye it can almost always be distinguished by means 
of a high-power telescope. A telescope magnifying twenty diameters 




Fig. 140 
A rifleman looking through his telescope and judging the wind by mirage drift 

or over is good for watching the mirage. If one will set the telescope 
in a rest and focus it on the target when mirage is present he will 
notice that the mirage has a decided movement or flow, something like 
the flow of a stream of water, or of a fog driven by the wind. The 
direction and velocity of this flow or travel can be seen by watching 
it carefully through the glass. The least little current of air causes a 
movement in the mirage. 

The actual velocity of the wind cannot be told by the mirage alone. 
For that one must depend on instruments or on observation of flags, 
or make an estimate as before described. The wind-gauge is set for 
this estimate in the usual manner, and the telescope set up on its 
rests alongside the rifle. Just before firing the first shot glance through 
the telescope and note exactly how the mirage is flowing, and the ap- 
parent velocity of it. Then fire the first shot, and immediately glance 
through the telescope again to see if it has changed in the slightest. 



534 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

Note where the first shot struck the target and if it is not right for 
wind make the necessary change in the adjustment of the wind gauge. 
If the second shot is correct for windage try to get every shot off 
with the mirage flowing exactly the same as it was for that shot. 
Watch the mirage closely through the glass before and after every 
shot. When the mirage appears to be running just right shift the 
eye from the telescope to the rifle sights and fire as soon as possible. 
Immediately after firing shift the eye back to the telescope to see 
if, perchance, it has changed, as that would give the reason for an 
off shot. 

The mirage may appear to flow steadily to the right or left. It 
may flow very slowly or very rapidly, and it may change from very 
slow to very rapid almost instantly. It may boil straight up with- 
out any lateral movement. When the mirage travels from left to 
right it of course shows a wind blowing from left to right. When 
it boils straight up it shows either a wind straight from 6 or 12 
o'clock, or else no wind at all. If the mirage be flowing slowly from 
left to right, for example, and the wind gauge be set for such a flow, 
and then at the instant of firing the mirage begins to travel very 
fast in the same direction, if one is shooting at 1000 yards the shot 
may hit anywhere from 2 to 4 feet to the right of the point of aim. 
And yet in most cases the change in wind which caused this sudden 
change in mirage flow cannot be seen or appreciated at the firing 
point in any way except by watching the mirage through the telescope. 

It is in fish-tail winds that the watching of the mirage becomes 
absolutely necessary if a good score is to result at long range. A 
fish-tail wind is one blowing from head or rear, and constantly shift- 
ing a little bit from one side to the other. The mirage may be flow- 
ing steadily to the right with slow movement, then instantly change 
and flow very fast to the left, then as quickly change again to boil- 
ing straight up. By watching mirage in a fish-tail wind through the 
glass for several minutes it will probably be noticed that for the most 
of the time it flows in a certain direction at a certain velocity. The 
wind gauge should be set for this flow, and the rifleman should keep 
his eye at the telescope until he sees that the mirage is running steadily 
in this manner, and then get his shot off as soon as possible before 
it has had a chance to change. 

It is hard to describe this on paper, and yet it is not difficult to learn 
mirage judgment of the wind. Several days spent on the target range 
where good shots are firing, watching the mirage through a telescope 



WINDAGE AND WINDS 535 

will make one very fair at it, and a little practice will perfect one in 
it. One should remember that the mirage always gives the best guide 
to the deflecting wind, and that when the wind as estimated at the 
firing point apparently is contrary to the mirage, to depend always 
on the mirage. Mirage does not show the actual velocity of the wind, 
nor its exact direction. It shows from which side it is blowing, and 
it shows very clearly little changes in velocity and deviating power. 

One precaution should be taken regarding the watching of the 
mirage through the telescope. The eye will have to be kept at the 
glass for quite a long time. If one is shooting a 20-shot match at 
1000 yards, the eye will have to be at the telescope pretty constantly 
for almost three quarters of an hour. If the telescope be not focused 
exactly right a very serious eye strain may result. In focusing a 
telescope or field glasses, first pull the instrument out to the fullest 
extent of its draw, and then gradually and very slowly shove the eye- 
piece in, keeping the eye looking through the glass at the object all 
the time, and stop the instant that the image appears clear and in good 
focus. The telescope may appear correctly focused with a considerably 
shorter distance between object lens and eye-piece than this, but a 
shorter focus would give eye strain, and the longest draw that can be 
used with good focus should always be used. 



CHAPTER XXXV 
THE SCORE BOOK 

THE rifleman can never hope to shoot well until he knows his 
rifle, and he can never learn it thoroughly unless he keeps a 
record of its shooting. He will fire at many different ranges, under 
many weather conditions, in several firing positions, and perhaps with 
different lots and makes of ammunition. No man can keep all these 
various elevations, windages, and zeros in his head. He must keep 
a record. The score book is a small book to keep this record in. 
There are a number of good score books on the market. Among them 
are the " Bull's-eye Score Book," the " Marine Corps Score Book," 
and the official publication for the Army entitled " Soldier's Handbook 
of the Rifle and Score Book." The tatter is published by the Govern- 
ment Printing Office in two editions, one for the United States rifle, 
Model of 1903, and the other for the United States rifle, Model of 
191 7. While all these score books are intended for military rifle shoot- 
ing with the military rifle, it is possible to modify them so as to make 
them suitable for any rifle. The score book should be carefully used, 
and all the various data recorded, so that at any time the rifleman may 
be able so to set his sights and fire that he will make a hit with the 
first shot. 

Despite its name, the score book is not intended to keep the score 
alone in. In fact the book has been misnamed. It should be called 
the " Ballistic Record of the Rifle." The score is the least important 
thing to note because on all regular rifle ranges there is an official 
scorer at each firing point who records the official score on a score 
card. This score card is made out in two parts, duplicates of each 
other. One part is handed to the rifleman and the other portion is sent 
to the statistical officer for recording. The score book consists of a 
number of blank pages ruled and arranged for recording all the data 
regarding the firing at certain ranges and at certain kinds of fire. The 
important things to note on the appropriate page or sheet are : 

1. The elevation and windage used for each shot. 

2. Where each shot is called, that is where the rifleman expects it 

to strike the target. 

536 



THE SCORE BOOK 537 

3. A mark on the target diagram showing where each shot struck, 

that is, where it was marked. 

4. The wind and weather at the time of firing each shot. 

5. Any other important data such as ammunition used, tempera- 

ture, position, data, location of range, light, character of 
target, etc. 

The following instructions pertain to the use of the official score 
book in military shooting with the military rifle, but they may be modi- 
fied in any manner desired by the civilian to suit his own particular 
methods of firing, and for his own rifle, always bearing in mind the 
general principles, and the results desired, that is, a complete record of 
the shooting of the rifle, including the personal equation of the man. 

It will be noticed that the score book contains score sheets for each 
of the different classes of fire, and for each range. Samples of the 
various score sheets are shown herewith. Selecting the proper score 
sheet, just before we go to the firing point we record on it the range, 
the number of the rifle, the date of loading of the ammunition used 
(or its make and character), and the weather conditions, noting par- 
ticularly the direction and approximate velocity of the wind. We then 
make our calculations for sight adjustment for the first shot, set our 
sights accordingly, and record the exact sight setting in the columns 
provided for that purpose. All this should be done a few minutes 
before it is our turn to fire. 

On taking one's place at the firing point, look first to see that the 
wind and weather conditions have not changed. 

We will now take, for example, the case of a rifleman actually firing 
at 500 yards with the military rifle, slow fire, on the military target B, 
and show how he should use and keep his score book. Follow the 
case carefully on the sample score sheet (Fig. 141). The rifleman, as 
he comes to the firing point, gives his official score sheet to the scorer, 
places his ammunition near his right hand where it will not get in the 
dirt (if it is not in his belt), and adjusts his gun-sling to his arm. He 
then assumes the correct firing position in a good level place at his firing 
point where he can see the target clearly, places his score book and 
pencil near his right hand where he can easily use it without moving 
around, and, if he is using a telescope, sets it up, focuses it, and ad- 
justs it on the target. He has previously made the preliminary entries 
in the score book, so he does not have to take up valuable time to do 
this now. He looks, however, to see that the weather conditions, par- 
ticularly the wind, have not changed since he recorded them. We are 



538 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



N-.l 



^ zr" 



DC 



CO 



CJj 



I 



j 



I 



Of 



3 



^> 



P> 



CM rO «f LO vO h- OO <T> 52 



c* 



a) 
v- 
o 
u 

CO 



a 






o 
CO 




"" .*6T«*vfc ui 110143 «x4o? 'a»^j 



supposing that he has never fired this rifle before, therefore he has set 
his sights at " 500 " for elevation, and so recorded it. He estimates 
the wind at 8 miles per hour from 3 o'clock, and referring to the table 
of wind allowances (this table will be found in the previous chapter, and 
should also be contained in the score book), he sees that this will re- 
quire a correction of 1 point on the rear sight for the Model 1903 rifle, 
or causes a deflection of 20 inches. If he is using the Model 1903 
rifle he records in the column " W. G." the figures " i-R," meaning 



THE SCORE BOOK 539 

one point right wind. If he is using the Model 1917 rifle which has 
no wind gauge, he records in this column the figures " 20-R," meaning 
that he will endeavor to hold 20 inches to the right of the center of the 
bull's-eye. In the column for " Wind '•' he places the figures " 3K8M," 
meaning 3 o'clock, 8 miles per hour. He loads his rifle and is ready for 
his first shot. Just as he fires it he is careful to note just where the 
sights were aligned on the target at the instant that the rifle was dis- 
charged. That is he " calls his shot." He records this call in the 
column provided for it. It will be noticed that the squares in this 
column have cross lines. If the shot is called a " bull," that is, if the 
sights were aligned absolutely correct at the instant before discharge, 
the rifleman simply places a dot at the intersection of the cross lines. 
If he calls his shot at " 3 o'clock " he places the dot on the horizontal 
line to the right of the intersection, and so on. In this case we will 
say that he calls his first shot a " bull," and so records it. He now 
waits until the target is marked. We will say that the first shot is 
marked a "4" at 7:30 o'clock, just on line with the lower and left 
hand edges of the bull's-eye. With his sharp pencil the rifleman makes 
a little circle on the target diagram just where the shot was marked on 
the target on which he fired, and in this circle he places the figure " 1 " 
to denote just where the first shot struck the target. Now notice the 
correction marks on the left hand and top of the target diagram. From 
these it will be evident that the sight should be given 50 yards more 
elevation, and the wind gauge moved one-half point more to the right 
(or with the Model 1917 rifle aim should be taken 10 inches more to 
the right) in order that the next shot shall strike where it is aimed or 
called. Or instead of making corrections in this way the correction 
may be calculated from a table of sight adjustments prepared as de- 
scribed in a previous chapter. The rifleman makes these corrections 
in his sight setting and records them on the line provided for the 
second shot, and in the proper columns. He then glances again at the 
wind to see that it has not changed, and fires his second shot. This is 
also called a " bull " and so recorded in the " Call " column. When 
this shot is marked it is seen that it has struck near the center of the 
bull's-eye. It is so marked on the target diagram. The rifle is now 
sighted correctly, and the rifleman continues to fire with his sights 
thus adjusted, keeping an eye on the wind just before firing each shot 
to see that it has not changed. Everything goes all right until the 
fifth shot, which he accidentally pulls a little to the left, and a little 
high, and so records it in the " Call " column. Sure enough, when 



54Q 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



Yds Slow Fire 


^Jo.ofnfU ' Ammunition 

)ate_ Place.. 


X 1 


No 


El* 


WC 


W,.iC 


11 Vat 


Remark 


















































Wind 

Light .___ 

Weather 












































































Score . .[ 







Yds 


Rapid Fire 


No of rifle. Anuuiiutim 
Date . Pfoce 

~~ RemarKs ~ 

Score 


A, m ,n, Po.nl 




- 




W.G_ 




VVrad. 
L.ohl 
WealKer " 





100 Yds. Slow FirV 




Wind.. 
Lishl.. 
WutHr 



No. of rifle Ammimrhm. 

Dale ..Place.... 



!_:: 



Score 



100 Yds Rapid Fire Na of rifle Amnimitio 

Date,. Race. 

- Remarks - 



Aiming Point. 

El«_. 

W.&_ 

Wmd . 

Lijtt 

WealKer 



Yds. Slow Fire 


No of Rifle Ammunition. 

Date PU» ., 


""!"*T"T°"r ri f* 


No [lev 


wa 


WnJ^ 


J1V«1 


Remajlu 


i(By> 


1 










I 










i 










4 










5 | 










6 










7 










wa 


8 










9 










Light 


10 












■ . Score . | 







Yds. Slow Fire 

hlU.,*S...W*4 H .(t.r 


Mo. of 


rifle Amwumhon 

Place 




((a)) 


NaFJe, 


WC 


vwc 


altVal 


Remark 


1 










2 










3 










4 










5 










6 










7 














8 










Light 

WalW 


9 



























Score. . J 





Fig. 142 

Cuts showing the various score sheets for different classes of fire taken from 
the official score book in use in the United States Army. Sheets greatly reduced 
in size 

this shot is marked it is a " three " at 10.30 o'clock. As this was the 
rifleman's own fault no change in the sighting of the rifle is necessary. 
The sixth and seventh shots are pulled correctly and result in bull's- 
eyes. The eighth shot, however, is a " four " to the right of the bull's- 
eye. The rifleman wonders at this because he called it a bull, until 



THE SCORE BOOK 541 

he happens to notice that the wind has fallen off slightly, and is not 
blowing as strongly as it was. Either he failed to look at the wind 
before he fired, or it changed in its velocity at the instant that he fired. 
For his ninth shot, therefore, he brings his wind gauge back to " i-R " 
(one point right, or " 20-R " if he is using the Model 1917 rifle). The 
ninth shot is another bull's-eye, but the tenth shot was called low, and 
strikes just below the bull's-eye. 

The rifleman's total score for the ten shots at 500 yards is 45. The 
official score sheet, a copy of which the scorer hands to him, should 
read " 4, 5, 5, 5, 3, 5, 5, 4, 5, 4 — 45," and the leaf in his score book 
should contain all the data above indicated. This leaf now gives a 
complete record of the rifleman, the rifle, the ammunition, and the 
weather, and forms the best sort of a guide for the rifleman when he 
comes to fire at 500 yards again, or he would refer to it for data if he 
is to fire at 600 yards, setting his sights just 100 yards higher. With 
the same rifle and ammunition he should, the next time that he is 
called upon to fire at 500 yards, be able to set his sights so as to strike 
the bull's-eye with the first shot, thus eliminating the " four " or 
" three " at the beginning of his score, which reduces his total score. 
Any rifleman will also see how important it is in game shooting to 
make a clean hit with the first shot. As he gains proficiency in prac- 
tice the poor shots resulting from bad pulls will gradually get fewer 
and fewer, and he will watch the wind more closely, and not get 
caught by it as he was on the eighth shot in the score we have just 
followed so closely. He knows that with the ammunition he is using 
his normal elevation for 500 yards is " 550 " and not " 500." Also 
that probably when there is no wind blowing he can set his wind gauge 
at " zero " and get a shot in a horizontal line running through the cen- 
ter of the bull's-eye. 

The slow-fire sheets for other ranges given in Fig. 142, are 
used in a similar manner. The rapid-fire sheets sufficiently explain 
themselves. Place a small cross on or below the target diagram to 
show just where the aim was taken, and record this under " Aiming 
Point." Record in the column of remarks anything that it is desired 
to make record of. In recording shots on the diagram of the silhouette 
targets on the rapid-fire sheets simply place dots for each shot as they 
are marked from the butts. Notice where the " group " comes and 
make the necessary corrections for the next score, either in sight ad- 
justment according to your table of sight corrections, or in the aiming 
point. 



542 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 




Hauje lOOO Yds 


Tine to- H »»rt 


RUle I78IH 
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Fig- 143 

Sheet from the author's score book. Score fired in the Adjutant General's 

Match, Ohio State Rifle Association, 1909 

Fig. 143 shows an exact copy of a score fired by the author at 1000 
yards, showing all the data recorded, including the notes as to mirage 
flow. This sheet is shown exactly as it was made at the firing point, 
the only change being the inking in of the pencil notations. 



CHAPTER XXXVI 
MILITARY RIFLE SHOOTING 

THE sole purpose of military rifle shooting is to make the soldier 
a good shot under war conditions. This imposes upon the mili- 
tary rifleman certain restrictions as to rifle and methods of fire which 
do not pertain with the civilian. The regulations and system govern- 
ing military rifle shooting in the United States are laid down in the 
" Small Arms Firing Manual," United States Army, a copy of which 
can be had from the Superintendent of Public Documents, Washing- 
ton, D. C. Following out the general scheme as laid down in this 
manual, the soldier should be so trained at known distances in the 
various kinds of fire employed in actual service as to bring his skill as 
a rifleman up to the capabilities of his weapon, after which he should 
be trained in firing as a part of a tactical unit so as to use his individual 
skill to the best advantage on the battle-field. The scheme of instruc- 
tion is prescribed with a view to attaining these objects. By means of 
preliminary drills and gallery practice the soldier is trained in the 
fundamental principles of marksmanship ; by means of range practice 
he is taught to apply these principles in firing at known distances at 
clearly defined targets. This training is merely preparatory to combat 
firing in which individuals learn co-operation, and company command- 
ers and leaders learn how to obtain the maximum efficiency of fire by 
a judicious co-ordination of the skill and the efforts of all the indi- 
viduals of the group or fire unit. 

In all preliminary practice in range firing the soldier is taught to 
reduce the size of his shot group as much as possible, and to place the 
center of the shot group at the center of his target. In combat firing 
this principle should be utilized in securing superiority of fire. In 
actual combat individual targets will not, in general, be visible, but if 
individual shot groups be so combined as to produce a grazing fire 
uniformly distributed along the hostile line, a large number of hits will 
necessarily result, and shots which miss will have the approximate 
value of hits in determining superiority of fire. In a decisive battle 
success depends on gaining and maintaining superiority of fire. Every 
effort must be made to gain it early and then to keep it. 

543 



544 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

The course prescribed for the individual soldier in the " Small Arms 
Firing Manual " is as follows : 

(a) Nomenclature and care of the rifle. 

(b) Sighting drills. 

( c) Position and aiming drills. 

(d) Deflection and elevation correction drills. 

(e) Gallery practice. 

( f ) Estimating distance drill. 

(g) Individual known distance firing, instruction practice. 

(h) Individual known distance firing, record practice. 

(i) Long distance practice (for selected shots). 

( j) Practice with telescopic sights (for selected men). 

(k) Instruction combat practice. 

( 1 ) Combat practice. 

(m) Proficiency test in combat practice. 
Soldiers are graded according to proficiency exhibited in the record 
practice of the known distance firing as expert riflemen, sharpshooters, 
marksmen, first-class men, second-class men, and unqualified. 

The preliminary drills and gallery practice have remained very much 
the same for a number of years. In general the recruit is first taught 
the operation and care of his rifle, and the names of its principal parts. 
He is then taught how to aim, the various firing positions, and the 
trigger squeeze in much the manner already described in the chapters 
on these subjects in this work. He is then taught to co-ordinate these 
in position and aiming drills with empty rifle against targets made to 
appear similar to, and to subtend, the same visual angle as the targets 
which he will fire on in known distance and combat practice. During 
this portion of his practice he is also taught the calling of the shot, 
and the sight adjustment. In the firing regulations the latter is called 
" deflection and elevation correction drills." This instruction is then 
followed by gallery practice. Gallery practice is usually held at 50 or 
75 feet with the .22-caliber gallery practice rifle, in the standing, kneel- 
ing, sitting, and prone positions, and a certain score in each position 
is required from each soldier before he is permitted to progress to 
known distance practice on the outdoor range. In infantry companies 
in the Regular Army the importance of these preliminary drills is 
thoroughly understood, and no man is permitted to proceed to known 
distance practice until he has fully mastered the fundamental principles 
of marksmanship. These preliminary drills usually occupy a full 
month, eight hours a day, in the regular army. 



MILITARY RIFLE SHOOTING 



545 



The prescribed course in known distance practice, or as it is also 
called, outdoor-range practice, has been changed from time to time, 
and is liable to change in the future so that it is not laid down in 
detail here. The reader is referred to the latest edition of the " Small 




Fig. 144 
Shooting with sandbag rest at the 600 yard firing point, showing coaches at work 

Arms Firing Manual." In general the principles under which this 
course is drawn up are as follows : The soldier must first learn to 
shoot accurately, and also he must learn his rifle, its sight adjustment 
and zero at the various ranges, etc. Therefore it is prescribed that 
the course shall first consist of slow fire on bull's-eye targets at the 
various ranges. Next, having learned to shoot accurately, and having 
some knowledge of the elevations and zeros of his own rifle, the soldier 
is next introducted to silhouette targets which simulate in appearance 
an actual enemy. These targets are usually painted a drab or khaki 
color. Aiming on these is a little different from aiming at a bull's-eye, 
so the soldier is first given a chance to fire at them in slow fire, each 
shot being marked as fired. In this way he learns just where to aim 
at an enemy to stand the greatest chance of hitting him. Next he is 
taught rapid fire on these silhouette targets, being required to fire ten 
shots in about one minute at various ranges from 200 to 500 yards. 
This develops quick aiming, quick trigger squeeze, ability to operate 
the mechanism of the rifle quickly and certainly, and to load additional 
clips of cartridges surely and with dispatch, all very necessary attain- 



546 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

merits of the soldier for combat practice. Having had instruction in 
all these, almost every shot being fired under a competent coach, the 
soldier progresses from instruction practice to record practice. Record 
practice consists of a sort of a test to determine just how much the 
soldier has learned in his course, and the extent of his skill with the 
rifle. In record practice coaching is not permitted, and the practice 
is conducted under all the regulations and requirements attending a 
regular competition. Record practice is similar to the more im- 
portant portions of instruction practice, and upon the score made in 
it depends the final qualification of the soldier as expert rifleman, 
sharpshooter, marksman, etc. Following this practice certain of the 
best shots in each company are given additional practice at 800 and 
1000 yards and also at these and longer ranges with rifles equipped 
with telescopic sight. This concludes the individual training of the 
soldier. 

In order to stimulate interest in military rifle shooting throughout 
the country competitions in this form of shooting have been held for 
many years. In the Regular Army the best shots in each company 
compete to determine who shall represent the regiment in the division 
competitions. The winners at the division competitions, usually the 
highest 15 men, are sent to some central point for the army competi- 
tions. The 15 winning men at the army competitions comprise the 
army team and are sent to the national competitions. In each State 
there are similar competitions to determine the team which shall 
represent the State at the national competitions. Teams from every 
State in the Union, from the Infantry and Cavalry of the Regular 
Army, from the Marine Corps, and from the Navy are sent to the 
national competitions and here compete against each other for the 
national trophy and other prizes offered by Congress for both team 
and individual competitions. The National Rifle Association of 
America usually hold their annual individual competitions at the same 
time and place as the national competitions. It is here that one sees 
the highest development of skill in military rifle shooting. Practically 
all the best shots in the country are gathered together, the competition 
is very keen, and the shooting of a very high order. It frequently 
happens that even at the long range of 1000 yards a large number of 
competitors will attain the highest possible score, and many ties have 
to be shot off. 

It is particularly interesting to note that at these national competi- 
tions where all the best shots of the country are brought together, that 



MILITARY RIFLE SHOOTING 



547 



practically every man shoots with exactly the same system, and uses 
the same methods. For example, if we were to take moving pictures 
of a number of expert riflemen in the act of shooting it would be seen 
that all the movements, positions, and methods would be practically 
identical in every respect. In other words American military riflemen 






s^** 



Fig. 145 
View of the target range at Camp Gaillard, Panama Canal Zone, from the 600 

yard firing point 

have developed a system of rifle shooting that is so good that all 
expert shots use it, and no one has been able to improve on it for a 
number of years. The author has endeavored to give in these pages 
this system, the methods used, the manner of aiming, the various po- 
sitions, the method of operating the rifle, of adjusting the sights, etc., 
believing that they are the best methods for any riflemen whether they 
are to be used for military rifle shooting, for civilian practice, or for 
sportsmen. No one using other methods of his own has yet been able 
to excel the expert who shoots according to Hoyle. 

These competitions have considerable value in stimulating interest 
in military shooting, particularly among the civilian class. The fact, 
however, must not be lost sight of that military rifle shooting is in- 
tended to develop the skill of the individual man so as to make him a 
better shot under battle conditions. This means that the soldier must, 
through repetition and intelligent practice, be taught to shoot so well 
that even in battle, when under intense excitement and exertion, he 



548 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



will shoot well as second nature. It means that he must be trained so 
that he will never fail to adjust the sights accurately at the range 
ordered, so that he will never fail to aim accurately at the target 
ordered, so that he will never fail to squeeze his trigger carefully 
without the least suspicion of a jerk. All this takes time, repetition, 
practice. Many a man has gone through a season's course and made 




Fig. 146 
Shooting at 600 yards. Camp Gaillard, Panama Canal Zone 

a fine score because of his natural talents, but he is far from being 
a trained military shot — he would go all to pieces under excitement. 
In military rifle shooting the rifle must be used as issued to troops. 
It is permitted to blacken the sights, or to ease up on the wood under 
the upper band if it binds the barrel here and interferes with its free 
expansion when heated. The trigger pull must be at least three 
pounds. The United States magazine rifle, model of 1898, now being 
obsolete, the only arms permitted in regular military shooting are 
the United States rifles, Models of 1903 and 1917. In competitions 
it is usually permissible to use a micrometer sight adjuster for adjust- 
ing the rear sight of the Model 1903 rifle. The use of score books 
and field glasses, or small portable telescopes such as could reasonably 
be carried by the soldier, is always permitted and encouraged. Sol- 
diers must shoot in the regular service uniform, either with blouse or 
O. D. shirt, and with the regular cartridge belt. In certain combat 
exercises the full pack may be required. 



MILITARY RIFLE SHOOTING 



549 




550 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



The recruit will almost always have a good coach to take him 
through his first year's practice up to his record practice. Army 
regulations make the company commander responsible for the instruc- 
tion of his eompany in rifle firing, and this matter of instruction of 
the new men will always be taken care of in organizations. The 
civilian who desires to take up military rifle shooting is strongly ad- 





TARG-ET"B". 

SOO 8 '600 YAftOS. 



TARG-ET TV" 

200 S 300 YARDS. 











3 










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2 








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Target C — 8oo and iooo yards 
Targets used in military rifle shooting. Slow fire 

vised to join one of the civilian rifle clubs organized in connection 
with the National Rifle Association, where he will always find fellow 
members only too willing to coach him and steer him over the rough 
places. In joining such a club he also gains the advantage of having 
a government rifle for use, and of getting a certain amount of 
ammunition free, and anything over this at cost price. 



MILITARY RIFLE SHOOTING 



551 



Military rifle shooting is good sport. Almost every one who goes 
into it to any extent becomes very enthusiastic about it. It offers 
many returns too. The rifleman who is successful in his organization 
usually has a chance to go to one of the smaller competitions. Suc- 
cess there means a State or divisional competition, and from there to 
the national competitions which usually take about two weeks to 
compete. Very often international competitions are arranged, and 
cur teams have often gone abroad and even to South America to com- 
pete with foreign teams. The sport is a clean, healthy one, there is 
no taint of commercialism to it, and the rifleman has the satisfaction 
of knowing that he is excelling in something that will be of direct 
benefit to himself and to his country. 





i — ii--+-$p-+-^ &*"- -« 

TARGET "D" 



TARGET '0': 



SILHOUETTE OLIVE DRAB COLOR 
WITH RED FACE, 
Targets used in military rifle shooting. Rapid fire 



CHAPTER XXXVII 

TEAM SHOOTING 

THE principal event in rifle competitions in the United States is 
the national matches which have been held annually. These 
matches are authorized, and the trophies are awarded by Congress. 
In these matches teams from the National Guard of every State in 
the Union, from the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps compete in team 
matches, and the individuals of the teams also compete in individual 
matches. Usually the annual matches of the National Rifle Associa- 
tion are held at the same place as the national matches, and imme- 
diately precede or follow those matches. The national matches have 
therefore become the Mecca for the riflemen of the United States, 
and the competition for places on one of the teams to visit these 
matches is very keen, as are also the competitions themselves. The 
principal one of the national matches is the National Team Match, in 
which compete teams from all States, one from the Infantry of the 
Regular Army, and one from the Cavalry, one from the Navy, and 
one from the Marine Corps. The team making the highest score in 
this match wins the team championship of the United States for that 
year, the national trophy offered by Congress, and a medal for each 
member of the team. Teams consist of twelve shooting members, 
three alternates, a team captain, coach, and spotter. 

In the National Guard the national match team is usually selected 
by a very thorough series of competitions within the State. Usually 
these competitions start in the companies, the men of each company 
competing for places on the company team. Company teams compete 
for the championship of the regiment, and from the men so competing 
the best are chosen for the regimental team. The regimental teams 
usually then compete in a state competition, and in that competition 
the best shots are picked to represent the State at the national matches. 
In the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps a slightly different method of 
selection usually pertains, a number of men with excellent past record 
as good shots being gathered together early in the spring, and the 
team selected from them by a very thorough try out. The competition 
for places on these teams is so keen,- and such a high order of marks- 

552 



TEAM SHOOTING 553 

manship is necessary that we find men training for these teams all 
winter in gallery practice, and shooting on the outdoor range prac- 
tically all summer. 

An enormous amount of time and thought has been expended on 
the training of these teams, and a number of systems have evolved, 
but as far as known none of them have been described on paper for 
the benefit of teams and riflemen at large. These systems have been 
rather regarded as secrets, this having been brought about by the keen 
competition. The author was a member of the United States Army 
Infantry National Match Team in the years 1903, 1905, 1906, 1907, 
and 1909, and presents herewith the system finally developed in that 
team as the best, a system which has resulted in the team making the 
best all around record of any competing team. 

There is a system of rifle competitions in the Regular Army which 
is intended to develop expert shots skilled in all the refinements and 
niceties of the game, who, upon their return from competitions, will 
be the better trained to coach the men of their companies or troops 
to a higher order of marksmanship. Thus the best shot from each 
company and troop, as developed in the regular practice of the or- 
ganization, is sent to a rifle competition held in the department where 
his organization is serving. Here all the representatives compete in 
an individual competition lasting about six days, and the highest 
twelve men are sent to the army competitions where they compete 
for twelve places on the army team. This team itself has no connec- 
tion whatever with the national matches,' neither does it ever shoot 
as a team, it being simply the aggregation of the twelve highest men 
in the army, rifle competition, although as a matter of fact these men 
are usually sent to the national matches to compete merely as indi- 
vidual shots and not as a team. From these competitions held an- 
nually or semi-annually in the Army it is possible to pick a number 
of very excellent rifle shots on their past records. 

In January of each year the team captain for the Army Infantry 
National Match Team is chosen by the War Department, and detailed 
on this duty, being a senior officer of long and successful experience 
in team shooting. The captain selects, from their previous records 
as riflemen, about forty of the best shots in the Infantry who are 
available, and warns these men that they will be ordered some time 
in May to some previously designated rifle range to compete for places 
on the team. The men are advised to start training and practice at 
once, and to give up smoking. Almost invariably these men start in 



554 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

with a strenuous program of shooting and physical training. If the 
army post at which they are stationed does not permit of outdoor 
shooting the man most probably starts in with gallery practice until 
such a time as the weather permits him to get on the outdoor range. 
By the time that May comes the candidates are all in fine shooting 
form, their muscles and eyes are trained, and their nerves are in 
first-class shape. 

About the middle of May these men are all assembled, usually at an 
army post where there is a first-class rifle range, for their training 
and for the competition. The team captain has also gathered together 
all the material for the team, the following list showing about what 
will be needed. 

2 rifles, star gauged, .308-inch groove diameter for every man 
competing. 
30 rifles, star gauged, .308-inch groove diameter for the team 
to be finally selected. 

1 barrack cleaning rod, steel, for each man. 
12 telescopes, individual, 33 diameter. 
12 telescope rests for individual telescopes. 

1 telescope, large, with tripod, 60 diameters. 

1 micrometer sight adjuster for each man. 

4 score books for each man. 

Sperm oil. 

Cosmic grease. 

Aqua ammonia, 28 per cent, 
gas. 

Ammonia persulphate. 

Ammonia carbonate. 

Cut flannel patches. 

Targets and target material. 

Ammunition. 

Each candidate is issued two rifles with instructions to use one for 
slow fire work only, and the other for rapid fire. He also receives 
a cleaning rod, micrometer sight adjuster, score book, and cleaning 
material. A telescope and rest are provided for him at the firing 
point. His name is placed on a box of ammunition and he obtains 
his cartridges from that box only, thus assuring that his ammunition 
is always from one lot. The other material and equipment he has to 
supply himself. 

The first two or three days of work on the range are used in getting 



Sufficient quantity for compe- 
tition and training. 



TEAM SHOOTING 555 

these rifles sighted in at the various ranges. The team captain then 
starts a competition which has usually consisted of shooting six times 
through the national match course. This course differs from year to 
year, and is prescribed in general orders from the War Department. 
Of late years it has usually consisted of 10 shots slow fire at short, 
mid, and long ranges, and rapid or surprise fire at short range. While 
this competition is conducted in strict accordance with all the rules 
governing competitions (see "Small Arms Firing Manual") yet the 
competitors are permitted and encouraged to coach each other. Two 
competitors are usually paired together and shoot together all during 
the competition. The captain thus not only knows the shooting ability 
of each man, but gets a good line on his ability as a coach, and on 
his suitability as a team member. This competition usually requires 
about a month for its completion, and at the end of that time the 
fifteen highest men are chosen from the 12 shooting members of the 
team and the three alternates, and the remaining competitors are 
ordered back to their stations. 

The team is then organized and starts in to practice as a team. 
A shooting order is tentatively determined upon. Men who get along 
well together are usually paired together, taking care that each pair 
shall include at least one good coach. It is very important that the 
first pair to shoot shall include excellent shots because a good start 
in a match raises the morale of the team, and the other pairs are liable 
to start off with a rush. The last pair to shoot should be the oldest, 
and particularly the most reliable and steady men who are not liable 
to become excited if it requires a bull's-eye on the last shot to win 
the match. Competition is so close in these matches that the match 
is frequently not won until the last shot. It should be understood 
that in a team match each team is assigned to one target, and that 
they shoot on this target in pairs, two men in a pair, the man on the 
right shooting first, and the pair alternating shots. Thus a team of 
twelve men contains six pairs. 

In this team practice much attention is paid to the correct keeping 
of scores in the score books. Everything is recorded, particularly on 
days when the weather conditions differ from normal. The various 
elevations and windages required with each rifle are compared, so 
that when one man succeeds in hitting the bull's-eye every man will 
know just how to set his sights to accomplish the same thing. The 
whole object is to make as high a score as possible for the team, and 
not for any individual to make a phenomenally high score. To this 



556 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

end each member tries to coach his partner to as high a score as 
possible, at the same time trying to do the best he can himself. In 
this training the shooting usually consists in firing a number of times 
through the national match course, although the captain will often 
have the team shoot extra scores at the most difficult ranges, and at 
those ranges and classes of fire in which they appear to be weak. 
About three weeks before leaving the rifle range where the teams have 
been training for the range where the national competitions are to be 
held the team will be issued their new rifles, two to each man, and 
thereafter all practice will be held with these new rifles, so that the 
rifle of every man will be in its very best shooting condition at the 
time of the match. A United States rifle, Model of 1903, probably 
shoots at its very best from its one hundredth to its eight hundredth 
round, although some rifles will continue to do splendid work for a 
long time after this. 

All this time the team is getting shaken down, trained, and becoming 
skilled so that they can put through an exceptionally good score in 
any weather condition. Care must be taken not to do too much shoot- 
ing or there is liability of the team getting stale. An occasional holi- 
day when there is some form of healthy amusement going on in the 
vicinity is a mighty good thing. Holidays had better come when the 
weather conditions are normal, and advantage be taken of abnormal 
days to do quite a lot of shooting so as to thoroughly learn the dope 
for such days. 

In the conduct of the team practice certain things are insisted on: 

Every team member must do his best to assist his partner, and the 
other members of the team, and never intentionally lead them astray. 
Thus men have been thrown off the team for telling their partner that 
they pulled a certain shot at 5 o'clock when as a matter of fact they 
knew that they had pulled it dead at 6 o'clock. Such a man has no 
place on a team. 

Elevations are always recorded in minutes on the micrometer sight 
adjuster, and not in yards. 

In slow fire, when one member of a pair is firing the other member 
must have his eye at the telescope. Thus he catches any shot which 
happens to go low and kick up dirt on the butt, or any change in the 
drift of the mirage. 

Each man must shoot " according to Hoyle." Such methods as 
holding off for wind or elevation instead of correcting the sight ad- 
justment, or of using peculiar positions, or crank methods of adjust- 



TEAM SHOOTING 557 

ing the gun-sling are not tolerated. Drinking and smoking are not 
permitted. Men must shoot in the service uniform, with either blouse 
or shirt. Belts must be worn. 

Each man must have his sights blackened, his sling adjusted, and 
his sight set before he comes to the firing point so as not to waste 
valuable time. 

Score books are always open to the inspection of the team captain 
and to the man's partner. A uniform system of keeping score books 
is required. 

The very best care must be taken of the rifles so that they will 
do their best work all the time. Members of the team are required 
to clean their rifles, using the regular metal fouling solution, every 
afternoon before supper. The rifle must be regularly " doped " so 
as to render the bore chemically clean, as it has been found that rifles 
cleaned in this manner every day shoot their best, and maintain their 
accuracy the longest. Some members occasionally clean their rifles 
in this manner at noon if they have been doing much shooting, but 
the experience has been that this is hardly ever necessary. 

The team is usually ordered to the range where the national match 
is to be held a week or two before the date for the opening of the 
matches in order to enable the men to get settled, accustomed to the 
change in locality, water, etc., and also so that they can get a little 
practice on the range and become accustomed to the conditions before 
the matches start. Here the men are camped together, and are messed 
together. They are required to retire by ten o'clock every night, and 
in every way their living is made as uniform and healthy as possible. 
The men's eyes particularly must be watched. They must not be 
allowed to watch the targets except when they are actually firing or 
coaching, and they must not read by artificial light or when lying 
down. 

The period of team training is now at an end. Everything has been 
done that was possible to bring up their aggregate shooting ability. 
Not only has every man had the advantage of the coaching by his 
partner, himself in all probability an expert shot, but the team coach, 
picked as the most experienced rifleman in the whole Army who is 
available, has done his best to work each man up to the limit of his 
ability. To show the skill demanded in team shooting of this order, 
it has been demonstrated that a man is of little use on one of the 
top teams unless he can shoot right along under almost any weather 
conditions and average scores as follows : 



558 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

200 yards offhand 44 points out of 50 

600 yards slow fire 48 points out of 50 

800 yards slow fire 49 points out of 50 

1000 yards slow fire 43 points out of 50 

200 yards rapid fire 48 points out of 50 

300 yards rapid fire 46 points out of 50 

Several days before the date set for the commencement of the 
National Team Match the names of the twelve men who are actually 
to shoot in the match are made public. Ordinarily these will be the 
twelve regular shooting members of the team, although if any one 
of these is not shooting in good form, or is not physically in good 
shape, the team captain will not hesitate to put in one of the alternates 
instead. Thus no alternate knows until the end whether he will have 
a chance to shoot on the team or not, and no shooting member is 
absolutely assured of his chance to shoot. This keeps every one 
keyed up to do his best all the time in practice as well as competition. 

On the day of the match the shooting members of the team are not 
allowed to come to the firing point until just before it is their turn 
to fire, and they are not permitted to know the scores made by mem- 
bers who precede them until the end of the day's shooting. Also they 
are told to keep away from all bulletin boards, etc. Thus the mem- 
bers escape all the nerve-racking excitement which is always present 
at the firing point. At the proper time, when warned by the team 
spotter, they slowly wander out from camp to the firing point, taking 
with them their rifle and equipment, and sit down quietly in rear of 
the firing point, having only about five minutes to wait until it comes 
their turn to fire. Each man should thus be able to shoot at his very 
best. After each day's shooting the team captain gives his team a 
talk, calling their attention to what has been done so far, what re- 
mains to be done, and the plans for the next day. The men are en- 
couraged as much as possible, and should be kept away from com- 
petitors of the other teams as far as it can be done. Thus everything 
is subordinated to the one idea of winning the match, of having every 
man make the best score he is capable of, both for himself, and for 
his shooting partner. The whole spirit must be team work. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 
REST SHOOTING AND TESTING 

MACHINE rests and muzzle and elbow rests for the purpose of 
steadying the rifle during aiming and firing have always been 
used by small arms factories and arsenals for the purpose of eliminat- 
ing the human error as far as possible when testing arms and ammuni- 
tion for accuracy and suitability for use. Individual riflemen have also 
often used a rest to shoot from when aligning sights, and to test the 
accuracy of ammunition, and at one time there was a small coterie 
of riflemen in the Massachusetts Rifle Association who indulged in 
200-yard competitive rest shooting at the old Walnut Hill rifle range. 
But the number of men who have utilized rest shooting for the pur- 
pose of conducting a serious study of the rifle and its ammunition, 
and the ballistics of small arms in general, can almost be counted on 
the fingers of one hand. And yet I know of nothing else which will 
so thoroughly teach the science of rifle shooting and rifle ballistics, 
and so clearly demonstrate the truth or fiction of theories as carefully 
conducted rest shooting. Individual rifle " shooting of the ordinary 
kind without competition becomes monotonous after a time. One 
progresses quickly in skill at first, but when he reaches a certain stage 
further progress comes very slowly. But rest shooting is always in- 
teresting. There is no limit to the number of experiments that can 
be conducted, and there is a constant chance for improvement in 
methods and material. It is the most interesting kind of solitaire with 
the rifle. 

I think that Mr. E. A. Leopold of Norristown, Pennsylvania, can 
be regarded as the originator of the intensive study of the rifle and 
its ammunition by means of firing from rest. It was he who called 
to the attention of Dr. F. W. Mann the method of investigating the 
flight of the bullet by means of tipping bullets fired through paper 
screens. Dr. Mann spent practically a lifetime in experimental work 
of this nature, and the results of these experiments up to the year 
1909 are set forth in his book " The Bullet's Flight." From 1909 to 
his death in 1916 Dr. Mann devoted practically all his time to further 
studies of rifle ballistics, and accomplished wonders in these lines, 

559 



560 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

developing methods which led to an increase in accuracy and velocity 
above anything that heretofore had been deemed possible. He had 
just started to compile the results of these latter experiments in a 
second book when all the work was halted by his sudden death. A 
large amount of the results of his investigations are incorporated in 
this work, particularly in Chapter XVII. The riflemen of the world, 
and science in general, suffered a severe loss when Dr. Mann passed 
away. Both Mr. Leopold and Dr. Mann were years ahead of their 
time in their knowledge of rifle ballistics, and to this day science in 
general, and the various manufacturers and ordnance offices, are just 




Fig. 148 
Mann " V " rest with barrel in position for testing, showing action and rings 

learning facts which these two riflemen discovered years ago, due 
almost entirely to their methods of study; that is, intelligent rest 
shooting. 

The range on which Dr. Mann conducted his experiments is an 
object lesson in itself. There is none other like it in the world. 
It was built on his homestead farm near Milford, Massachusetts. 
The range was 200 yards long, but bullets could be fired up to 400 
yards. For 200 yards the range was entirely covered and protected by 
a long gallery made of wood, with a shooting house at one end. In 
this long gallery arrangements were introduced so that paper screens 
could be quickly and accurately set up at any distance up to 6 inches 
apart for the entire range, for the purpose of accurately tracing the 
flight of each bullet. All firing was done from what Dr. Mann called 
a " V rest." This was a " v "-shaped trough, 30 inches long, and 
made with absolute accuracy of fine bronze, and weighed 33 pounds. 
The barrel lay in it in concentric rings, and the stock and action were 
always removed and replaced with a concentric action screwed on to 
the rear of the barrel. Thus when the barrel was fired it recoiled 
straight to the rear, sliding through the " V," and there was not the 
slightest whip or buckle. For every shot the barrel lay with the axis 
of its bore absolutely accurately aligned on a point on the 200-yard 
target, and a corresponding point on all intervening screens, known 



REST SHOOTING AND TESTING 561 

as the " tack hole," so that the line of fire was absolutely uniform from 
shot to shot, and from year to year. This bronze " V " rest was 
bolted to a cast iron slab, 16 inches wide and 36 inches long, weighing 
180 pounds. This slab rested on a cement pier, and was fastened by 
6 stay bolts reaching down 16 inches into the concrete. The founda- 
tion of this shooting Gibraltar were 2 feet wide, 5 feet long, and 
reached down several inches into bed rock. The whole structure 
weighed a little short of 3 tons, and in all the years of its use there 
was no movement in it at all. As Dr. Mann used to say, this " V " 
rest always told the truth. 

It is not possible for us to construct such ranges in these days, 



Fig. 149 
Machine rest used on top of a Mann " V " rest. Sharp rifle in position for testing 

and indeed it would take almost a lifetime of study before one would 
be competent to conduct experiments thereon- which would require so 
much accuracy that they could not be conducted as easily, and at 
much less expense on a more modest muzzle and elbow rest. 

With a view to learning the truth as regards certain beliefs and 
statements of riflemen throughout the world, and also in order to 
conduct certain experiments which I had always desired to put through, 
about ten years ago I started rest shooting in a modest way, but it 
was not until I became associated with Dr. Mann in his work that 
I learned the capabilities and technique of rest shooting. The in- 
structions and suggestions given herewith are based on four years 
experimenting on my own rest and range (which, although very modest 
in character, proved very efficient), and on writings, experiments, 
and suggestions of Dr. Mann. 

When we take up rest shooting for the purpose of test and study 
our first effort must be directed towards eliminating the human ele- 
ment and error as far as possible from the shooting. In the results 
there should stand forth only the error of the rifle and ammunition. 
The first consideration therefore is the construction of the rest. There 
are two general types of rest : the machine rest in which the rifle is 



562 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

firmly held in clamps, and slides on a track when it recoils on firing; 
and the muzzle and elbow rest in which the rifleman holds the rifle 
himself, seated at a very firm table, with the muzzle resting on a block, 
butt against the shoulder, and toe of the stock resting in the left 
hand which in turn is rested on the table. There has been consider- 
able discussion as to the relative value of the two types of rest, many 
claiming that the muzzle and elbow rest does not eliminate the human 
error. Personally I have always used the muzzle and elbow rest, and 
the results which I have obtained approximate so closely to the re- 
sults obtained by Dr. Mann on his " V " rest that I am convinced that 
for all practical purposes the human error has been eliminated in my 
case, but it undoubtedly takes considerable practice in rest shooting 




Fig. 150 
Same rest as shown in Fig. 149 used in testing a pistol 

with such a rest before one can be positively certain that the line of 
fire is absolutely constant from shot to shot through a long series. 
The advantages that the muzzle and elbow rest has over the machine 
rest are cheapness of construction, and adaptability to any rifle with- 
out adjustment. Before a rifle can be used in a machine rest the 
forearm must be removed, and rings must be milled accurately for the 
barrel so that it can be clamped securely in the two mountings. With 
the muzzle and elbow rest it is possible to approximate very closely 
the conditions which pertain in shooting offhand by resting the fore- 
arm only on the rest, and padding the rest with a blanket; but with 
the machine rest the rifle shoots very differently from what it does 
when fired offhand. Many riflemen have stated that an expert rifle- 
man can always equal or exceed the work of the machine rest. I do 



REST SHOOTING AND TESTING 



563 



not know what they base their statement on, because a correctly ad- 
justed and used machine rest certainly does eliminate all human error, 
and the known human error is present in all offhand and prone work. 
The machine rest is undoubtedly the best, especially for a man not 
particularly skilled in rest shooting, but when one has a large number 




Fig. 151 
Mr. Edward C. Crossman shooting from an extemporized muzzle and elbow rest 

of rifles to test, as was my case, the muzzle and elbow rest is very 
much more convenient. 

As stated, a muzzle and elbow rest for serious work should consist 
of a very heavy and secure table placed at the firing point. The 
table must be absolutely immovable. In my ease I used a heavy 
concrete pier to the top of which was bolted a top of 3-inch plank, 
and the planks could not be moved or shaken at all. The same se- 
curity can be accomplished by a table constructed with five legs com- 
posed of timbers 6 inches square sunk at least two feet into the earth, 
and a top of planks at least two inches thick. The design and dimen- 
sions of this table are clearly shown in Fig. 152. The top of the 
table should be about four to six inches higher than a regular table 
top if one is going to use a regular height chair to shoot from. In- 
stead of having the muzzle or forearm rest firmly fastened to the 



564 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

table I found it more convenient to make it with a large box base. 
This box was then filled with scrap iron to weight it down, and it 
then stayed practically immovable wherever it was placed on the table. 
Thus I was able to push the muzzle rest out on the table so that the 
rifle would rest on it at the muzzle, or I could pull it back slightly 
towards the rear and use it for a forearm rest. The height of the 
muzzle rest above the table must be determined experimentally, aiming 
the rifle at the target, and using that height which will give the best 
and steadiest position of the rifle, elbows, and hands. If the target 
at the butts be on the same level as the table this height will be about 
10 inches. 

The rifleman sits on a heavy chair on the left side (facing the 
target) of the table, and near its rear end, left side towards the target, 
muzzle or forearm of the rifle resting in the muzzle rest, right hand 
grasping the small of the stock, breast leaning against the edge of the 
table so as to make the body steady, butt of the rifle against the 
shoulder or right upper arm, left hand under the toe of the butt, and 
grasping the lower portion of the butt-plate. Elevation is secured 
by humping up, or flattening out the left hand a little as it rests on 
top of the table and grasps the toe of the stock, and if necessary 
small planks of wood can be placed on the table under the left hand 
to build it up more and thus depress the muzzle of the rifle for a lower 
shot. The rifle is traversed to the right or left by moving the right 
shoulder to the right or left. If the rest be made to fit one, and a 
little practice be had in this position, one will very soon come to a 
realization that he can hold absolutely steady. Accurate use of the 
rest consists not only in holding steadily, and aiming accurately for 
each shot, but also of holding exactly the same each time. Each hand 
must be in exactly the same position for each shot, must hold with 
exactly the same tension, and the rifle must be held to the right 
shoulder in the same place and with the same tension. The muzzle 
or forearm must be rested at exactly the same place each time, and 
must bear down on the muzzle rest with the same weight for each 
shot. After you have become accustomed to shooting in this way 
you can amuse yourself by adopting different positions, or different 
tensions in your holding, and watching the point of impact on the 
target vary as you do so. This is one of the beauties of rest shooting, 
you prove everything for yourself as you go along, and prove it to 
your absolute satisfaction. 

Certain accessories are very desirable with the rest. A high power 



REST SHOOTING AND TESTING 



565 



telescope fastened to the left edge of the table, set in a rest of its 
own, and trained and focused on the target, so that when one is 
shooting the target can be inspected at any time by simply leaning a 
little to the left and forward, is almost an absolute necessity. One 
can see then from shot to shot exactly what he is doing. A 33-power 
telescope is good enough for 100 yards range, but to see bullet holes 
clearly in the black bull's-eye at 200 yards a clear glass of almost 60 



2 INCH PLANK 



Fig. 152 
Details of muzzle and elbow rest table. 



T^3P 



flUEO WITH 

SCSAP IKW 



t- 




5- : M. 

?"! ' 1 n ■ ■ 


J 


' ; bf^T _-/;:l I I 


















1 




j 








l J 











Side and top views 



diameters is essential. There should be some kind of a wind and 
light screen, as the rifleman must be sheltered from the wind or he 
cannot hold steadily, and his sights must always have a uniform 
appearance, which means that they must always be in the shade. 
By far the best arrangement is to build a little house around the 
rest table. Only a small hole is necessary in front of the table to 
shoot through, and another small port for the telescope. In fact the 
cutting off of light from the front will permit metallic sights to appear 
as a silhouette against the target and hence they can be seen much 



5 66 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



more clearly and aligned with greater accuracy. The house should 
be lighted by one window on the back side. The floor should be 
built around the table and its legs so that the table is not touched at 
all by the building. Thus any tremor of the house or floor is not 
transmitted to the table. My own shooting house was thus built, 
many conveniences such as rifle racks, cleaning bench, shelves, and a 
stove for cold weather were arranged, and the whole thing constructed 
of scrap lumber and tar paper at a cost of less than $35. If I were 
building another one I would build it exactly the same. Gradually 
there developed a confidence in this range and the results obtained at 
it which nothing can shake. 

It is very desirable that the range itself should be on absolutely 
level ground. Thus targets can be easily arranged for any range, 
and the erection of screens in the line of fire will not be difficult. 
A distance of 200 yards is as long as is necessary, and even that 
distance will seldom be used except for trajectory tests. Most of 
the experimental work will be conducted at 100 yards. At this range 
results can be compared as well as at longer ranges. All inaccuracies 



,L_ 



SOU FILLED WITH 
SCRAP IRON OR Lf AD 



Fig. 153 

Details of muzzle rest. This is placed on top of the forward edge of the table, 
and can be moved around where desired, its weight keeping it in place. The 
notches at varying heights for barrel or forearm of the rifle should be lined with 
heavy felt padding 

will show up as clearly at 100 yards as at longer distances. With a 
range of only 100 yards it does not take long to go down to the butt 
and inspect or change the target, and the telescope of 33 diameters 
for examining the target from the firing point is not an expensive 
affair, whereas the 60-power telescope required for really accurate 
observation at 200 yards costs a large sum. Practically all of my 
work was done at 100 yards, as will practically all of the work of 
other experimenters. 

Now that we have our range built, what are we going to use it for? 
Some of the uses to which it can be put, and. some of the first experi- 



REST SHOOTING AND TESTING 567 

merits which the novice would do well to conduct, are as follows: 
One may test an unknown rifle and ammunition for accuracy, and 
align the sights accurately. This is the most common use of the 
muzzle and elbow rest. One may test a certain lot of ammunition 
in a rifle of known accuracy, or an unknown rifle with a known lot 
of ammunition. The proof of the pudding is in the size of the group. 
Test for the effect of using Mobilubricant on the bullets. Determine 
the result of firing the first shot with a clean, oily bore ; a clean, dry 
bore ; and a fouled bore. Does the rifle shoot higher as it gets hot 
from firing? What is the effect on the point of impact of resting 
the rifle at various points on the barrel and forearm, and of various 
substances used as rests? Shoot the rifle with the barrel rested at 
the muzzle on a hard plank, and with the forearm rested on a thickly 
folded blanket, and notice the difference in where the group comes 
on the target, sights and aiming point remaining the same. Keep 
a record of thermometer and barometer from day to day, and notice 
the effect on the point of impact. Determine by a trajectory test on 
various days whether this is due to velocity or to barrel condition. 
, Conduct a trajectory test with intermediate screens to determine the 
exact trajectory of various loads over 100 or 200 yards. Deform 
the base of the bullets by beveling the base so as to unbalance them, 
shoot through special paper screens, and by means of the tip of the 
bullet in the various screens study the bullet's flight, its gyrations and 
oscillations. Work out various reduced loads, and determine the 
difference in point of impact between them and the full charge, and 
calculate and verify the different sight adjustment required. In the 
above tests alone there is enough work to keep one rifleman busy with 
one rifle for every Saturday afternoon for a year. There is no limit 
to the number of experiments that can be conducted, and with each 
experiment completed the rifleman has gained added knowledge of 
his arm and of ballistics, and has verified something to his complete 
satisfaction. 

In the various tests and experiments the rifleman's ingenuity should 
be given full opportunity. One experiment will usually suggest an- 
other. All work should be carefully tabulated and accurately kept. 
The value of any test or experiment depends upon the accuracy with 
which it was conducted, and the attention paid to minute details. To 
this end quite a number of articles and tools are essential. One must 
have complete sets of reloading tools, scales for weighing powder 
charges, a supply of the various powders, gas or oil stove and outfit 



568 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

for moulding bullets, telescopes, micrometer calipers, etc. A small 
machine shop is very useful, but I have always managed to get along 
with a few files, vise, whetstone, screw-drivers, drifts, hammer, anvil, 
etc. In fact when doing most of my experimenting my entire shop 
for reloading ammunition, making repairs, alterations, etc., was con- 
tained in a closet 5 feet square in which I did all my work prepara- 
tory to a visit to the range. 

The following tests will give the rifleman an idea Of some of the 
work that can be done on a rifle range equipped with a machine rest 
or a muzzle and elbow rest. As I have said one test and experiment 
leads to another, and the rifleman soon finds that he is started on a 
most interesting game, and one which will tax all his resources and 
brain. 

Test 1. Let us say that the subject of our test is a small bore, high- 
power rifle equipped with sights which will adjust for both elevation 
and windage to minutes of angle. We will first sight the rifle in at 
50 yards to strike in the center of a 3-inch bull's-eye when the sights 
are aligned at the lower edge of the bull's-eye. After having the 
sights adjusted to our satisfaction for the regular high-power am- 
munition, let us fire a group of 10 shots with this ammunition at 50 
yards. Note the size of the group and the center of impact as de- 
scribed in Chapter XXL Now load up a reduced load (attention is 
called to the data on reduced loads in Chapter XI), and test this 
load also at 50 yards, using however the same target that you fired 
on with the full charge, and having the sights adjusted with the cor- 
rect elevation and windage for the full charge. Be sure to clean 
the rifle after using the full charge and before using reduced charge 
as the reduced charge will not shoot accurately in a barrel containing 
the fouling of the full charge. (Try it and see if it will.) Now you 
have two groups on your paper target, one fired with full charge, and 
the other with reduced load, but both fired under the same conditions, 
and with the same sight adjustment and point of aim. Note the dis- 
tance in inches between the two. The reduced load will probably 
strike a few inches lower on the target than did the full charge, and 
perhaps a little to one side. If the reduced load center of impact is 
5 inches below, and I inch to the right of the center of impact, then 
the correct sight adjustment for the reduced load should be 5 minutes 
higher, and 1 minute to the left of the full load sight adjustment. 
Change the sight adjustment accordingly, and fire another group with 
the reduced charge and see if it strikes fairly near the center of the 



REST SHOOTING AND TESTING 



569 



bull. Now one has the sight adjustment for both full charge and 
reduced loads at 50 yards, has demonstrated how far apart they will 
strike on the target with the same sight adjustment, and also has a 
line on the accuracy of both loads at 50 yards. As regards accuracy, 
one must remember that the error of aim at 50 yards with metallic 
sights is about half an inch, but that if a telescope sight is used on 
the rifle this half inch error must be divided roughly by the power of 
the telescope. Thus with a five-power telescope this error should be 
only about Via inch. If you have a rifle which is sighted with both 
metallic sights and telescope, try this out. Shoot 10 groups with 
metallic sights, and then 10 groups with telescope sight under exactly 



ISO Ms j 



j£."* 



=*** 





Fig. 154 
Showing arrangement of screens, cross lines, and base lines for trajectory as 
arranged for trajectory test. The small circle indicates the bullet hole through 
the screens and target, the cross shows the cross lines which form a straight line 
from muzzle to target, and the small horizontal line is the base line from which 
the height of trajectory is measured 

the same conditions, and see whether the average of groups is about 
4 Ao inch in favor of the telescope. 

Test 2. Find the correct sight adjustment for each load up to the 
limit of your range, and also make an accuracy test at each range 
to determine the capabilities of the rifle and cartridge at that range. 
In making an accuracy test do not put too much faith on one group 
of 10 shots. It may be a lucky group. In making accuracy tests I 
always tried to fire at least 10 groups of 10 shots each, and then 
average the result. Let us say that in thus testing out a load at 
various ranges you find that the sight elevation required for 200 



570 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

yards is 2.75 minutes above that required for 100 yards. In each 
case you have carefully measured the centers of impact to arrive at 
this close figure. This will show that the height of the trajectory of 
this load at 100 yards, when shooting at 200 yards, is very close to 
2.75 inches, although trajectory cannot be determined accurately in 
this way, but should be determined by a regular trajectory test as 
described below. 

Test 3. Suppose you wish to accurately determine the trajectory 
of a certain load over a range of 200 yards. Let us determine the 
height of bullet at 50, 100, and 200 yards. First erect frames for 
paper screens in the line of fire at exactly 50, 100, and 200 yards, but 
do not place the screens in position yet. Place a high power tele- 
scopic sight, or the telescope of a transit on the rest so that it will 
assume the same position as the barrel of the rifle does when fired. 
Shim up the telescope until the cross-hairs assume the same position 
on the rest that the axis of the bore of the rifle will. Align this 
telescope on the center of the 200-yard target and make a cross on 
the target where the intersection of the cross-hairs come. Now be 
very careful not to move the telescope until we are through aligning 
and marking the screens. On your framework at 150 yards place 
your screen of thin writing paper and looking through the telescope 
make a cross on this paper where the cross-hairs intersect. Similarly 
insert the screens at 100 and at 50 yards, and with the telescope place 
cross lines on them where the cross-hairs intersect. Now these four 
cross lines on the 200-yard target and on the intermediate screens 
will be exactly in line with each other, and with the cross wires of the 
telescope, or the axis of bore of the rifle when it replaces the telescope 
on the rest. On the 50-yard screen paste a 3-inch black paster about 
half an inch directly above the intersection of the cross lines as an 
aiming point. Now remove the telescope from the rest, and place 
the rifle thereon, sights adjusted for 200 yards. Aim at the small 
bull's-eye on the 50-yard screen and fire one shot. Leave the screens 
alone for the present. Go to the 200-yard target and note how much 
above or below the cross lines on that target the bullet struck. Make 
your measurements with a carefully graduated rule. I have always 
used an engineer's triangular boxwood rule. This measurement gives 
you the base line from which the trajectory must be calculated. If the 
bullet has struck 6 inches below the cross lines on the 200-yard target 
the base line for trajectory must be ruled horizontally on each screen, 



REST SHOOTING AND TESTING 



57i 



on the 150-yard screen 4.5 inches below the cross lines, on the 100-yard 
screen 3 inches below the cross lines, and on the 50-yard screen 1.5 
inches below the cross lines. The distance from this base line for 
trajectory to the center of the bullet hole through the screen will be 
the height of trajectory at the distance at which the screen was 
placed. Fig. 154 explains this very clearly. 

If much work be done in trajectory tests it is best to plant two 
heavy posts in position where each screen comes, and fix to them a 
cross piece, exactly horizontal and about 2 feet below the cross on 
the paper. When the screens are first set up, and the cross marked 
on them, drop a perpendicular with string and plumb bob from the 




Fig. 155 
Posts and frame for supporting screens. Screens are supported above by two 
cords carrying hooks inserted in holes punched in the corners of the paper ; and 
below are held taut by rubber bands B-B, and similar hooks to those above. 
Cross on screen is drawn at a determined distance measured perpendicularly 
from the top of the tack C on the lower cross-piece 

cross on the screen to the cross-piece below, and drive a nail at the 
point of the bob in the horizontal cross-piece. Measure this distance 
very accurately. Thereafter, in setting a screen in position it will not 
be necessary to determine the location of the cross line on the screen 
by the tedious process of observation with telescope sight or transit, 
but the screen can be hung in position and a " T " square placed on 
the horizontal cross-piece, touching the nail, and a perpendicular meas- 
ured to the required spot on the screen where the cross lines should 



572 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

be drawn as shown in Fig. 155. This sketch also shows a convenient 
arrangement for hanging the screens in position. 

Test 4. After the rifleman has sighted his rifle in at various ranges 
for a certain load he may desire to obtain the angles of elevation for 
that load. In order to obtain a correct table of angles of elevation 
we must have a zero elevation to work from. The point of impact of 
a certain load, or its required sight elevation at any range, tells us 
nothing as regards its trajectory or power unless we know its zero 
elevation, as a load of very high velocity and low trajectory may 
actually strike lower on the target at ranges of 200 yards and less, 
than does a load of lower velocity, due to difference in jump or 
barrel flip. This zero elevation for any load is easily obtained. Sup- 
pose the sights on the rifle are 1% inches above the axis of the bore. 
The bullet of course begins to fall the instant that it leaves the muzzle. 
Let us say, for example, that a .30-caliber, 220-grain bullet, at 2000 
foot-seconds velocity falls one-eighth of an inch in passing over a 
12% yard range. We can then sight the rifle in on a 12V2 yard range 
so that the bullet will strike with its center 1% inches below the point 
aimed at {i x A inches height of sight, plus %-inch drop of bullet). 
This reading of the sight will then give us our zero elevation for that 
load. 

It is possible to translate the graduations on any sight into minutes 
of angle as described in Chapter VIII, but it is very much more con- 
venient to work with a rifle which is equipped with a rear sight reading 
to minutes of angle. Suppose we have such a rifle, and on aligning 
its sights at various ranges, and determining its zero elevation, we 
arrive at the following with a load giving a velocity of 2000 feet per 
second : 

Zero elevation sight adjusted at 4 minutes 

100 yard elevation sight adjusted at 7 minutes 

200 yard elevation sight adjusted at 12 minutes 

and similarly with the same rifle and a load giving 2600 feet per 
second we get the following elevations : 

Zero elevation sight adjusted at 10.5 minutes 

100 yard elevation . . sight adjusted at 12.5 minutes 

200 yard elevation sight adjusted at 15. minutes 

If we had the 100-yard elevations alone, or the 200-yard elevations 
alone for these two loads we might get very much confused because 
the load of lower velocity actually, in this case, strikes higher on the 



REST SHOOTING AND TESTING 573 

target at both these distances, and the novice might conclude that it 
had a flatter trajectory, and was more powerful. When we deter- 
mine the zero elevation, however, and tabulate the various angles of 
elevation we at once see that the apparent difference is due to the 
fact that the two loads start from the muzzle at different points dur- 
ing the movement of the barrel as it vibrates. As a general rule a 
load of low velocity strikes lower on the target than one of higher 
velocity, but this exception to the general rule has been taken here to 
illustrate the point. 



CHAPTER XXXIX 
RANGE PRACTICE FOR THE SPORTSMAN 

HITTING game with the rifle requires both quick and accurate 
work. Quick work because the animal may be on the move, or 
if it be standing still there is no telling how long it may stand. Ac- 
curate work because one's target may be merely the head of an animal 
appearing over a raise in the ground or through timber, and the 
vital parts of a big game animal even at 200 yards is a mighty small 
object to hit. Accuracy in game shooting is every bit as essential 
as accuracy in target shooting. I have no patience with those manu- 
facturers and sportsmen who state that any rifle is accurate enough 
for big game shooting. I believe that the highest degree of accuracy 
is essential here. In target shooting the smallest object that has to 
be struck is usually an 8-inch bull's-eye at 300 yards, a 20-inch bull's- 
eye at 600 yards, or a 36-inch bull's-eye at 1000 yards. The target 
that the sportsman is called upon to hit is often much smaller than 
this in proportion to the range. If the target shot miss the bull's-eye 
his score is merely lowered a point or two. If the sportsman miss 
his quarry he may be missing the only shot he will get on a trip that 
has cost him several thousand dollars and a holiday saved up for 
several years. Moreover, the sportsman must hit his game quickly 
with the first shot. There are no sighting shots in the game field. 

This gives us an inkling as to what range practice for the sportsman 
and hunter should consist of. The rifle must first be learned abso- 
lutely. Its elevation and zero at various ranges, and in various po- 
sitions must be determined to a hair's-breadth. Then practice must 
be started with a view to developing quick and accurate shooting. 

Our first problem is then to sight the rifle in. Different kinds of 
rifles intended for different kinds of hunting should be sighted at 
different ranges. You would not sight a rifle intended for squirrel 
shooting at the same ranges that you would one intended for big game 
shooting in an open country. The distances at which various rifles 
should be sighted in, and their elevations and zeros found is shown 
in the following table : 

574 



RANGE PRACTICE FOR THE SPORTSMAN 



575 



DISTANCES TO WHICH RIFLES SHOULD BE SIGHTED IN YARDS 



Type of rifle 



Small game, 1500 feet per second 
Small game, 2000 feet per second 
Big game, 1500 feet per second. 
Big game, 2000 feet per second.. 
Big game, 2700 feet per second. . 



Grouse 
elevation 



Woods 
elevation 



Open 

ground 

elevation 



Other ranges 



15 
15 
15 

IS 

It 



40 

75 

50 

100 

100 



60 
125 
100 
150 

200 



80. 100. 
150. 175- 
150. 200. 
200. 300. 
300. 400. 500. 



Elevations and zeros should be found at the above ranges in each of the fol- 
lowing positions : (a) Offhand, (b) Prone with gun-sling, (c) With forearm 
rest. 

Grouse elevation. Every rifle intended for hunting should be sighted 
in at 15 yards so that it will cut off the head of a grouse when the 
front sight is held just touching the bottom of the head. The rifle 
can then be used for very accurate work at very short range. 

Woods elevation. This is the elevation that one should ordinarily 
use in hunting in thick woods, jungle, etc. It is the correct elevation 
for practically all Eastern shooting grounds. It allows very accurate 
work at the ranges at which one will usually fire in this kind of 
country. 

Open ground elevation. Intended for ranges rather longer than 
the ordinary when there is no time accurately to estimate the range. 
It is the elevation at which one should set his sights when shooting 
in open country such as that usually found in our West. With a 
big-game rifle, sights set at this elevation, and aim taken at the vital 
portion of a large game animal, range unestimated, the vital part 
will almost certainly be hit at a distance a little greater than the 
range given, or at any intermediate range. 

Other ranges. Rifles should also be sighted for these ranges, which 
include the greatest distance at which each class of rifles can profit- 
ably be used on the kind of game indicated. This kind of shooting 
may be termed long-range shooting, and a fairly accurate estimate of 
the range is necessary. 

In starting out to target one's rifle it is best first to do so at the 
various ranges in the " forearm rest " position. A table and chair 
are provided at the firing point, and a sand bag about 8 inches thick 
is placed on the table about a foot ahead of the nearest edge of the 
table. Elbows are rested on the table, back of the left hand is rested 
on the sand bag, forearm of the rifle is grasped by the left hand in 
the usual position (see Fig. 155). Determine the sight elevations 
and zeros at the various ranges as given in the table. This will give 
one the exact sighting to use when one fires in the field with rifle 



576 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



rested over a rock or log. For the grouse elevation use a bull's-eye I 
inch in diameter for the target, and aim with the top of the front 
sight just touching the lower edge of the bull's-eye. For other ranges 
use a 3-inch bull's-eye for ranges less than ioo yards, a 5-inch bull 
at 100 yards, a 10-inch bull at 200 yards, and so on. Hold with a 
normal sight just below the bottom of the bull's-eye, and sight the 
rifle so that the shots shall strike, not the middle of the bull, but the 




Fig. 1 55 
Sighting in a hunting rifle with forearm rest 

lower edge of the bull. That is to say, one wants his hunting rifle 
to strike close to the point where the tip of the front sight is held, 
not the width of the bull's-eye above the front sight, as is the case 
with a rifle intended solely for shooting at a bull's-eye target. 

Next, do the same thing with the rifle held in the standard military 
prone position, using the gun-sling exactly as described in Chapter 
XXV. This is the best position for a very long shot, or a shot which 
one wishes to make especially sure of, when he has time to assume 
this position. A little more elevation will usually be required for this 
position than for the others. 

Lastly, sight the rifle in at all the various ranges in the " offhand 
position." The ordinary rifleman will not be able to hold the rifle 



RANGE PRACTICE FOR THE SPORTSMAN 



577 



steady enough to obtain accurate results for this purpose in the regu- 
lar offhand position. With most men it would be necessary to fire 
several hundred shots at each range and then average the results. 
This takes too much time. Instead one should assume a position 
which gives exactly the same results. Such a position can be had as 
follows : Procure a stout table and chair. Place them at the firing 
point. Sit down in the chair behind the table, leaning forward with 



134 I j. 



'■■dP 1 



If' 




Fig. 156 
Sighting in a hunting rifle with offhand rest 



the breast resting against the near edge of the table. Aim at the 
target with the rifle in "the ordinary way, both elbows resting on the 
table top. Note the location and position of the forearm. Now pile 
small sand bags around and in front of the forearms in such a way 
as to firmly support each forearm up as far as the wrist, and at the 
same time not interfere with the assumption of the regular firing 
position, elbows rested on the table. This will give a very steady 
position indeed, and yet the rifle will be held in exactly the same way, 
with exactly the same tension that it would if fired offhand, and the 
results on the target will be exactly the same. (See Fig. 156.) 

In all this shooting endeavor to have the sun behind you, or else 
directly above. If this is not possible, arrange a sun shade for the 
firing point so that your eyes and the entire rifle will be in the shade. 
This is to avoid the sun striking one side of the front sight which 
would give one a false zero. Days should be chosen when there is 



578 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

little wind blowing, and when the temperature is about that which 
one would expect in the hunting country. 

As for the range, it may be anything from a simple extemporization 
to a fully equipped military rifle range. The author has often sighted 
rifles in and practiced on nothing more elaborate than a few boards 
nailed up at the base of a hill, and the target tacked on the boards. 
The location of each shot was seen when fired by means of a high- 
power telescope set up at the firing point, and after every ten shots a 
trip was made down to the target and the paper target changed for 
a fresh one. One can make very good targets on plain wrapping paper 
with a pair of compasses, a little lamp black, and a paint brush. If 
one is doing much of this work, however, it is best to buy printed 
targets, or have a printer make a wood cut and print the targets for 
you. Then the targets can be preserved as a part of the record. 

After one has sighted in his rifle and learned it thoroughly as 
described, the next step is practice with a view to developing ability 
as a game shot. At least four out of five of the shots fired in the 
game fields will be fired in the offhand, standing position. It is im- 
portant that we should develop accuracy in this position first. This 
means lots of slow fire, standing. One hundred yards is a good dis- 
tance for this practice. It takes lots of practice to make a good 
offhand shot, practice with special attention to steadiness of position 
and trigger pull. Wl?en one practices offhand shooting on a target 
there is a constant tendency to try to adopt some position in which 
one can hold steadier. There is no doubt that one can hold steadier 
in the hip rest position, rifle balanced on the thumb and fingers of the 
left hand Schuetzen style, than he can in the regular offhand position 
with the left arm extended and left hand grasping the forearm. But 
Schuetzen positions are of absolutely no use in the hunting field. 
They are not steady when one has been exerting himself recently, 
when any considerable wind is blowing, or when one has to shoot in 
a hurry ; and it is impossible to use these positions for rapid fire. The 
sportsman and hunter should stick to the regular offhand position as 
shown in Fig. 117, and learn to shoot well in that position. 

As one endeavors to hold on the target in the standing offhand 
position his rifle trembles to a certain extent so that the sights, instead 
of steadying down under the bull as they do in the prone position 
when the gun-sling is used, travel and " bob " all over the face of the 
target. Gradually, as one becomes more skilled in holding steady and 
hard this traveling, and bobbing of the sights becomes less and slower, 



RANGE PRACTICE FOR THE SPORTSMAN 579 

and is confined to the vicinity of the bull's-eye and just below the 
bull's-eye. The first second or two of each attempt to hold the rifle 
will not be very steady, then will come a period of five or ten seconds 
when the rifle is at its steadiest, and, after that, if the aim be con- 
tinued one will begin to tremble again from the prolonged effort. 
At the start of the steady period of holding, the rifleman should begin 
the steady pressure on the trigger so as to get it down to that point 
where an extra ounce of pressure will discharge the rifle. Then, 
when the rifle seems steadiest, and as the sights drift under the bull, 
try to press the last ounce on the trigger. 

The rifleman who desires to make a success of shooting must think, 
and think hard, each time that he fires a shot. He must concentrate 
every particle of his thought and will power on aiming, holding, trig- 
ger press, and calling the shot. He must be able to tell exactly what 
he did each time he pressed the trigger. A skilled offhand shot can 
call his hit within four or five inches at 200 yards before it is marked 
at the butts, because he has concentrated and he knows exactly where 
his sights were aligned at the instant before the recoil caused the 
rifle to raise in the air and blot out the view of sights and target. 

There should be no disturbance to the rifle at all during the instant 
of fire. The rifleman must endeavor to hold hard all through the 
recoil. Do not let go or relax at the last instant as the trigger is 
pressed. Try to continue to hold hard and steady all through the 
recoil, although of course you cannot do it. The natural thing is 
for the brain to keep the hands, muscles, and shoulder informed as to 
what the trigger finger is doing, and the instant that the finger presses 
on the last ounce to telegraph to the hands, shoulder, and muscles, 
" Look out ! She's going to kick." As a result a flinch occurs. 
Therefore try your best to avoid this natural tendency, and to divorce 
all connection through the brain between the trigger finger and the 
hands, shoulder, and muscles. Concentrate hard on aim, hold, trigger 
press, and call, so that there is no room for anything else in the 
brain. Keep the hands, .arms, and shoulder lax ; that is, don't let the 
muscles tense up and prepare to meet the recoil. The system and 
shoulder soon becomes accustomed to recoil. Recoil does not bother 
a trained rifleman a particle. 

After one has become fairly proficient in this offhand, slow fire 
shooting, he should gradually put a little speed into it. From the 
time that the eyes first see the target, try to get the shot off as quickly 
as possible. Imagine that you are shooting at a deer standing where 



580 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

the target is, and that you are expecting the deer to run at any 
instant. You want to get a shot in as soon as possible, but that shot 
must strike a vital part. Mr. Stewart Edward White, one of the best 
game shots in the world, has invented a system of target practice for 
the sportsman which is intended to develop quick shooting of this 
order, and this system is given herewith. This system, or one similar 
to it, should be taken up as soon as the rifleman is fairly proficient in 
slow-fire, offhand work. Do not try to work too fast at first. Never 
go so fast that you do not get a good aim, and a good trigger press. 
Get the speed gradually. You will notice that the system is arranged 




Fig. 157 . 

Springfield sporting rifle used by Stewart Edward White on first expedition in 

British East Africa 

so as to require you to do this if you are to get good scores at it. 
By keeping at this system, say one afternoon's practice a week, a fair 
offhand shot is sure to develop into a very quick and sure game shot. 
It develops the rifleman who makes a clean kill with the first shot. 

STEWART EDWARD WHITE SYSTEM OF RAPID FIRE RIFLE PRACTICE 

The object is to develop quick accurate fire, a quick shot, but a 
sure kill with that shot; the kind of shooting which will give the 
best results in the game fields. We set up an ordinary military, 
200-yard target A at 100 yards. The marksman faces the target, stock 
of the rifle below the elbow. At the command fire he gets into action 
and shoots as soon as his judgment dictates. The referee has taken 
the exact time between the command fire and the report of the rifle, 
2H seconds he announces, and jots the figures down. The marksman 
reloads, stands again with the stock below the elbow, and the process 
is repeated. At the end of a five-shot string his time runs as follows : 
2V2 sec, 2 sec., 2 sec, \Vi sec, 3 sec. — total 11 seconds. Now, and 
not until now, the marker marks the location and value of the five 
shots. The marksman has made a bull, three fours, and a three. The 
scorer refers to this table : 



RANGE PRACTICE FOR THE SPORTSMAN 



58i 



Time, 
seconds for 5 
single shots 


Bull's-eye 
counts 


4-ring 
counts 


3-ring 
counts 


2-ring 
counts 


20 


5 


4 1 


3 1 


O 


19 


6 


4 1 


3 1 


O 


18 


7 


4 1 


3 1 


O 


17 


8 


5 


4 


O 


16 


9 


6 


5 





15 


10 


6 


5 


O 


14 


11 


7 


6 


O 


13 


12 


8 


7 


O 


12 


13 


8 


7 





II 


14 


9 


8 





10 


15 


10 


8 


O 



1 The idea in counting these alike is that any man ought to keep in the four 
or three ring in 18 seconds or more, although an 18-second bull is more creditable 
than a 20-second bull. 

Under n seconds the bull's-eye counts 14, the four ring 9, and the 
three ring 8. Therefore the marksman has made a total of 14-9-9-9-8 
equals 49 points. 




Fig. 158 

Tap view of Stewart Edward White's Springfield sporting rifle used on his first 

expedition in British East Africa 

It would not be fair to count each shot according to its own time 
rather than according to the aggregate time for firing the string. If 
this were done a man might prefer to shoot very wildly and rapidly 
into the " three " ring for three or four shots, and then plant a deliber- 
ate bull or so to pull up on, or the other way around, as his judgment 
advised. The scheme proposed insists on consistency. It will also 
be noted that this table is only for an aggregate of single shots, each 
started with the stock below the elbow, and not for magazine fire. 
The same game can be practiced, with the same table, at a deer or 
other game-shaped target. The target may be natural color against 
an ordinary background of earth and grass. Shoulder shots count 5, 
middle shots 4, and the remainder of the animal 2. 



RAPID FIRE 



It still remains for the sportsman to develop his ability at maga- 
zine fire. This is half learned already if the rifleman has been practic- 



582 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



ing the White system. It is only necessary to learn to operate the 
mechanism of the rifle quickly and surely, and to get used to the 
quick recovery from recoil. Always keep the butt of the rifle at the 
shoulder during rapid magazine fire. Immediately after one has fired 
a shot, let go with the right hand to operate the rifle, and pull back 
hard with the left hand so as to pull the butt of the rifle against the 
shoulder and hold it there as one operates the breech mechanism. 
Hold the rifle hard in this position with the left hand and quickly 
and positively operate the rifle with the right hand. Then grasp with 
the right hand, relax with the left, catch the aim, and start the trigger 




Fig. 159 
Mauser rifle for the .30-caliber Model 1906 cartridge, the property of Mr. Ed- 
ward C. Crossman. Rifle has a Poldi anti-corro steel barrel. Cuts show the 
top of the action and the magazine floor plate 

press. The first time that the sights swing on to the mark you must 
be all ready to press the last ounce on the trigger. 

In the sitting position keep both elbows on the knees, or at any 
rate the left elbow. In the kneeling position keep the left elbow on 
the left knee. In the prone position, if using a bolt-action rifle, keep 
both elbows on the ground ; as you pull back the bolt press the barrel 



RANGE PRACTICE FOR THE SPORTSMAN 



583 



of the rifle over to the right and low, thus making it easier to operate 
the bolt. As you close the bolt bring the barrel up and to the left 
until it is again in line with the target. A little practice at this makes 
one so adept at it that the sights will come back almost exactly aligned 
on the bull's-eye after each operation of the bolt. 

Mr. Edward C. Crossman has arranged a system of magazine target 
practice based on Mr. White's idea which is excellent for both in- 
dividual practice and for competition. This system is given here- 
with, and the rifleman practicing with an idea to increase his ability 
with the hunting rifle cannot do better than practice it. 



THE CROSSMAN SYSTEM OF MAGAZINE RAPID FIRE PRACTICE 

Taking up magazine fire is merely carrying out Mr. White's idea 
— if one shot, accurately and quickly placed, is good, then five times 
this number, if they are as well placed and as carefully pressed, would 
be five times as good under certain circumstances. We alter the table 
worked out by Mr. White and make it read like this : 



Time for five 
shot strings 


Bull's-eye 
counts 


4-ring 
counts 


3-ring 
counts 




20 seconds 

19 seconds 

18 seconds 

17 seconds 


5 
5 
6 
6 


4 
4 

5 
5 


3 

3 
3 
■3 


For every shot which 
strikes in the 2-ring, or 
every miss, deduct 3 
points from the total 


16 seconds 


7 


6 


3 


score. 


15 seconds 

14 seconds 

13 seconds 

12 seconds 


7 
8 

9 
10 


6 

7 
8 
9 


3 

4 
4 
4 




11 seconds 


11 


10 


5 




10 seconds 


12" 


11 


6 




9 seconds 

8 seconds 


13 
14 


12 
13 


7 
8 




7 seconds 


15 


IS 


9 





The marksman starts with his rifle held at ready, stock below the 
elbow, piece locked or at half cock. At the command fire he fires 
five shots at the target as rapidly as he pleases. The referee takes the 
time from the command fire to the report of the fifth shot. The 
score is then calculated from the above table. 

Note. In the White and Crossman systems it is intended that the 
military target A with 8-inch bull's-eye should be used for 200 yards, 
and for shorter ranges the same target reduced proportionately. 



CHAPTER XL 



SHOOTING AT MOVING OBJECTS 

IN shooting at moving objects, such as game in motion, it is of 
course obvious that aim must be taken in front of the object in 
order to hit it so as to allow for the movement of the object during 
the time that it takes the bullet to fly from the rifle to the object. We 
will suppose that a deer is running at right angles across the line of 
fire at a range of 200 yards, and that the speed of travel of the deer 
is five yards per second. It takes a bullet fired from the .30-caliber, 
1906 cartridge at a muzzle velocity of 2700 feet per second .243 second 
to travel 200 yards. During this time the deer will run approximately 
4 feet. Theory therefore says that the sights should be aligned ap- 
proximately 4 feet ahead of the vital part on the deer's shoulder 
that it is desired to strike at the instant that the bullet leaves the 
muzzle of the rifle. If the animal is moving across the line of fire 
at an angle of 45 degrees instead of 90 degrees, the allowance must 
be just half of this, and proportionately for other angles. The fol- 
lowing table gives the time of flight in seconds for the .30-40 cartridge, 
200-grain bullet, 2000 feet per second, and the .30-caliber, Model 1906 
cartridge, 150-grain bullet, at 2700 feet per second. 

TIME OF FLIGHT 



Distance, 


.30—40 cartridge, 


.30 Model 1906, 


yards 


seconds 


seconds 


IOO 


.159 


.Il6 


2O0 


■337' 


■243 


30O 


•537 


.384 


4<X) 


.761 


693 


500 


1.012 


.709 



This is all right as far as theory is concerned, but in addition one 
must consider the time it takes for the brain to signal to the trigger 
finger to pull, the time it takes actually to pull the trigger, the lock 
time of the rifle, and the primer, powder, and barrel time. In addi- 
tion, while we may shoot on a range at a mechanically run deer target 
and know exactly how many feet per second it travels, who can tell 
the exact speed of a running wild animal in its native woods? And 

584 : 



SHOOTING AT MOVING OBJECTS 585 

when a buck jumps and starts to run who has time to calculate lead 
from the time of flight of the bullet? 

I have been up against the game many, many times on the real 
animal in his native wilds, and the best advice that I can give the 
novice is to hold ahead and swing with the animal, trying to get 
the trigger pulled when the sights appear aligned at the following 
distances in front of the point of the chest: For an animal running 
at a pretty good clip, and crossing the line of fire at an angle of about 
90 degrees, and at about 100 yards range, get the rifle off when the 
sights are aligned about 18 inches ahead with rifles of about 2000 feet 
per second velocity, and about 6 inches ahead if using a rifle of about 
2700 feet per second velocity. For animals running at medium speed, 
or crossing the line of fire at an angle of about 45 degrees, lead about 
6 inches with rifles of 2000 feet per second velocity, and have the 
sights just touching the point of the chest with rifles of 2700 feet 
per second velocity. If the target is a bounding deer, try to pull 
just as the deer is at the height of his bound, and in addition to lead- 
ing him the specified amount, hold about a foot low. For 200 yards 
double the lead. With a low velocity, black-powder rifle, double or 
triple the lead for the 2000 feet per second rifle. It is hardly worth 
while firing at ranges over 200 yards unless you can see dust where 
the bullet strikes, and thus get a line on the correct hold for the second 
or third shot. In firing at running game, if you don't make a hit 
with your first shot, operate the rifle as quickly as possible, and 
try another, and another shot with the same lead as at first. High- 
velocity rifles are very much better for shooting at moving game 
than those of low velocity. I should say that a man using a rifle 
having a velocity around 2700 feet per second stands 100 per cent, 
more chance of hitting than if he were using a rifle of the 2000 feet 
per second class. This is all that can be told on paper. The rest of 
it requires practice, and lots of it too. 

One can acquire much valuable practice at this kind of firing by 
shooting at a running deer target. The swing with the animal, and 
the selecting of a certain lead, and then the pulling when this estimated 
lead is attained all require much practice to perfect, and this practice 
can be had very nicely on a mechanically run deer on the range. 
Only the sportsman must remember that when he gets to the hunt- 
ing country he will never know the speed at which the animal is run- 
ning, nor the exact range. 

A thoroughly practical running deer target can be rigged up in 



586 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



the following manner. Dig a trench 30 yards long and 1V2 feet deep, 
across the rifle range near the butts. At each end of the trench 
plant stout posts, about 6 inches x 6 inches, seating them at least 2 
feet in the solid earth. Stretch a 30-yard piece of 8-gauge galvanized 
or coppered iron wire between these two posts, attaching it to the 
posts by strong turnbuckles. This wire should run in the center of 





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y~~ 








01 ! v^ 


































SOCKCT-* 


— 


BAIL 8MHINO 


•TECl FRAME 


_ 


«— SOCKFT 




MHftl t*»LI 




VI 


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Fig. 160 
Carriage for running deer target, showing construction 

the ditch, and several inches below the surface of the ground. Next, 
go to a mechanic and have him build a steel carrier similar to that 
shown in Fig. 160. The wheels should be about 2 to 3 inches in 
diameter, with ball bearings, and placed about 15 inches apart. The 
two sockets in which the sticks which carry the target fit should be 
about 22 inches apart. Under the carriage is a weight which keeps 
the target upright. This carriage runs along the taut wire as shown, 
carrying the silhouette of the deer. The carriage runs in the ditch 
below the surface of the ground where the bullets will not strike it, 
but the silhouette of the deer appears above the ground as though it 
were running along the surface. The deer should be made of some 
very stiff composition building board such as " Beaver Board," and 
should be sketched to life size and in running position by an artist, 
and then cut out. Keep one as a model and you can cut out any 
number required. Paint the target mouse or khaki color so that it 



SHOOTING AT MOVING OBJECTS 587 

can be just slightly discernible against the background of the range. 

For motive power an endless braided cord is run through a ball- 
bearing pulley attached to the post at one end of the trench. At the 
other end it is given two turns around a bicycle wheel. This bicycle 
wheel, minus tire, but including the rear portion of the bicycle frame 
with sprocket wheels, chain, and one pedal, is attached firmly to a 
framework and stakes or posts so that it will not move. The bicycle 
and sprocket wheels should be geared as low as possible, otherwise 
the deer will run too fast. The endless cord, besides going through 
the pulley, and twice around the wheel, is attached to the carriage 
carrying the target. When the operator takes a hold of the pedal 
and revolves the wheel the deer and carriage run from one end to the 
other of the 30-yard trench. At the end of the trench where the 
bicycle wheel is set up a butt must be built. This consists of a 
parapet about 10 feet long, 7 feet high, and 4 feet thick at the top, 
revetted with a board wall on the side away from the firing point. 
The operator sits behind this when working the wheel. At the other 
end of the trench is a screen of some sort — canvas, boards, or brush 
— behind which the deer disappears or starts. 

The deer can be started from either end of the trench. It is hidden 
by either the screen or the butt before it starts to run. Upon a signal 
from the firing point the operator works the wheel so as to cause 
the deer to run across the open space at a prearranged speed. The 
rifleman may fire at any time while the deer is visible. After the 
run is made the deer is pulled back to the butt, if not already there. 
The operator then runs up a red danger flag above the butt, notes 
the hits, if any, on the deer, runs the deer a little way out into the 
open, steps out and indicates the hits on the deer by means of a disk 
on a stick, pulls the deer back behind the butt, pastes up the shot 
holes, and lowers his red danger flag, thus indicating that he is ready 
for another run. In time the deer target will get badly shot up, and 
another target will be needed, but the remainder of the material, car- 
riage, wheel, etc., if cared for, will last for several seasons. A 
miniature arrangement of this kind can also be operated in a gallery. 



CHAPTER XLI 
THE RIFLE IN THE WILDERNESS 

THE shotgun takes its bearer out into the ploughed fields, and the 
patches of woods near civilization. But the rifle entices its 
owner into the wilderness, and the waste spaces of the world far be- 
yond the marks of the axe, and the sound of the railroad. To the 
man in whom the primitive virtues and red blood have not entirely 
been sapped by modern civilization there is scarce a joy comparable 
with that of wandering in the wilderness, winning one's way unaided, 
depending upon rifle and axe for food and shelter, feeling his man- 
hood tested and found fit. There is a lot of difference between an 
arm most perfect for range work, and one which must stand the gruell- 
ing test of constant use in the real wilderness. Imagine rain and snow 
for days with only a flimsy canvas shelter at night, dust storms in the 
desert, the sweat and humidity of the jungle, the temperatures of the 
arctic circle. Again the times that one simply must use the butt as an 
aid in rough mountain work, or when the horse slips in a ford, or the 
dog sled turns over with the rifle strapped on top, or the canoe gets 
upset in a rapid with the rifle tied to a thwart by its sling. We must 
have strength everywhere, and ability to clean easily, in a rifle intended 
for such work. 

When you are just dog tired at the end of the day's trail, when there 
is camp to make, and supper to get, and many another thing to do, there 
is still that dirty wet rifle to clean. It will be overlooked or slighted 
unless you have by foresight reduced the operation to its lowest de- 
nominations. 

For real wilderness work, for big game hunting and exploring, I 
like the bolt-action rifle. Its action can be entirely dismounted in an 
instant without any tools. One wipe over with a dry rag cleans and 
dries it, and another once over with an oily rag lubricates it and pre- 
vents rust. The dismounting of the action puts the barrel in the best 
position to be cleaned quickly from the breech. Such a rifle should 
have a strong, heavy stock, thick at the grip, its weakest part. It should 
have the sights well protected, and the working parts should be sharply 
checked to prevent the slipping of the fingers when numb with cold or 

588 



THE RIFLE IN THE WILDERNESS 



589 



enclosed in heavy gloves. On a canoe trip such an arm needs a water- 
proof case to protect it. Not such a case as one finds in a sporting 
goods store, but one of waterproof canvas of waterproof silk, unlined, 
which will not absorb dampness, nor be useless after an upset. The 




Fig. 161 
An American rifleman in northeastern Canada 

rifle is normally carried in its case, case strapped to a thwart of the 
canoe. In the far Northwest the Indians invariably carry their rifles 
in cases up to the very minute when they sight game ; this keeps off the 
snow and the wet, the perspiring hands which cause rust. On a horse- 
back trip a heavy leather holster is a necessity. The holster is tied to 
the saddle by the thongs at pummel and cantel, and hangs on the left 
side of the saddle, the barrel passing between the two stirrup straps, 
and the butt coming on the left side of the horse's shoulders, but not up 



590 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

as high as the withers. It is best protected in this position, and can be 
quickly snatched out when one dismounts. 

The cleaning kit must be small, well packed, and so arranged that it 
will be handy for use. My own kit gives an idea of about what is 
needed. 

On the rifle, in recess under butt plate and reached by trap in butt 
plate : 

Thong and brush (field cleaner). 
Pocket oiler. 

Flannel cleaning patches. 
Broken shell extractor. 

In pockets : 

Spitzer greaser filled with Mobilubricant. 
Oily chamois skin for wiping off. 

On the belt only those things needed in a great hurry : 

5 rounds of full charged ammunition. 

5 rounds of reduced load ammunition. 
In pack or rucksack, always on person: 

15 rounds of full charged ammunition. 

15 rounds of reduced load ammunition. 
In camp duffle, done up handily in a small canvas roll : 

Jointed cleaning rod. 

Can of rifle oil. 

Bottle of ammonia swabbing solution in traveller's bottle. 

Waterproof bag of flannel patches. 

Small can of Mobilubricant (extra supply). 

Small handy screwdriver. 

Spare firing pin. 

Several wiping rags. 

At the close of a hard day's work, when the cleaning of the rifle is 
in order, spread a piece of canvas on the ground near the fire. Take 
your rifle and the canvas roll of cleaning materials and sit down. Take 
out the bolt, and open up the canvas roll. Then go to it. In five 
minutes you will be through without having to get up, and without your 
pipe going out. 

In the wilderness everything will be different from what one has 
been accustomed to on the rifle range. The target will be on the move, 
or liable to be any instant. This calls for quick work. But also the 



THE RIFLE IN THE WILDERNESS 



S9i 



target may be practically invisible, in fact it usually is. The untrained 
eye seldom sees game in the wilderness because of its protective color- 
ing, and when it is once seen it is like looking at a bull's-eye to see 




Fig. 162 
An American rifleman in Central America 

what part of it is a little blacker than the rest. And yet in that target 
you must pick out a certain vital spot, and fire at it with steady hand, 
clear sight, and careful trigger press or you will miss the whole bloom- 
ing thing. And you may just have been climbing a five thousand foot 
mountain as steep as a mansard roof, or running at top speed, and your 
heart is working like a race-horse, and your muscles all a'tremble. 
Game shooting is a man's game, and one that takes experience, and yet 
it is a game that is quickly learned by a good target shot once he has 
learned the knack of seeing the game. 



592 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

The man who spends his whole time in the wilderness, the trapper, 
and hunter, and guide, is seldom a good shot except at short ranges. 
It takes a lot of target range experience to impress upon one the extreme 
nicety as regards sight adjustment, aim, and trigger press that are 
necessary to insure success at long range. But the average sports- 
man is far worse because he invariably believes that he is a born shot 
and does not need practice. I have seldom found a sportsman who, 
in preparation for a big game hunt, has gone out to a rifle range more 
than once in a season, and the majority of them have not even done that. 
By far the best game shot is the man who has done a lot of scientific 
and careful range practice, combined with military rapid fire, and who 
has hunted enough to have gotten on to the knack of seeing game in its 
native wilds. 

If you were going to shoot a rifle match on a certain date, you would, 
if you could, practice every day. That rifle match may net you a small 
medal, perhaps a little reputation. But on your fall hunt you leave 
home with the full knowledge of your friends for the express purpose, 
let us say, of going on a sheep hunt. The big-horn is the finest trophy 
that can fall to the rifle of a sportsman these days. Game is getting 
very scarce, and on a long hunt you may get but one or two shots. 
This hunt may cost you a thousand dollars. Which is the most im- 
portant match to train for, the target match of ten shots or so on a 
black and white target, or the matching of your skill against that 
big-horn on the mountainside? Why not practice assiduously all the 
time that you are on your hunt? Firing will scare away the game, 
but you have unlimited chance for position and aiming drill under every 
condition of light and target that you will encounter on your trip. 
Therefore you would do well to get in lots of this snapping practice 
morning and evening. After a time the handling of your rifle will 
seem like second nature. It will seem to be a part of you, a part 
that you can even work effectively in the dark at short range without 
any aim. 

There is need of becoming thoroughly familiar with one's weapon, 
far greater need than any one without wilderness experience would 
suppose. If one is to be successful in the wilderness with his weapon 
he must know it so well that he has absolute confidence in it. The 
mistakes which the tenderfoot makes are at once humorous and pitiful. 
Here are some that have come to my own attention and that I can 
vouch for. 

One sportsman and his guide stalked to within fifty yards of a 



THE RIFLE IN THE WILDERNESS 



593 



bull elk. The guide showed the sportsman the elk standing broadside. 
For almost a minute the sportsman stood looking at the elk, and the 
guide finally told him to shoot quick before the animal ran, so the 
sportsman pointed the muzzle of his 405 Winchester into the air, and 




Fig. 163 
The author's pack train in British Columbia 

working the lever like lightning, threw every cartridge out of the gun 
without firing a shot. 

Another sportsman with a guide of my acquaintance was hunting 
moose with a sporting Springfield. When the moose was jumped 
the sportsman first unlocked his rifle, then locked it, then (it seemed 
as though he did it deliberately) got the bolt handle hooked under his 
waist belt, and when he finally did get ready to fire the moose had 
vanished after having stood perfectly still in full view for over 30 
seconds. 



594 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

These are cases of buck ague, that is, of extreme excitement, but 
they are both failures in functioning the rifle, and they come from in- 
experience and lack of confidence in operating the arm. The skilled 
shot may get buck ague the first time or' two that he sees game, but it 
will affect him differently ; he will simply be so excited that he cannot 
hold the rifle steadily when he aims. 

It sometimes happens that one has plenty of time for a shot. The 
game may be feeding and entirely unaware of one's presence. But in 
the majority of standing shots one does not know at what instant the 
game is going to start off, and once started it takes a remarkably short 
time for it to get out of sight, even on open ground. Therefore the 
majority of shots one will get will be snap shots. I do not mean by this 
that one should hurry, but in practice for hunting one should get used 
to pressing the trigger the instant that the sights touch the object the 
first time, and not waiting until they have swung past and around the 
object several times and steadied down as in slow-fire, target shooting. 
To give the novice an idea I should say that four seconds would be 
about the average of time between the instant that one makes up his 
mind to fire and raises the rifle, and the report of the shot. In running 
shooting it may be a little less than this. Get the rifle up to your 
shoulder and approximately aligned as quickly as you can. Practice 
throwing it to your shoulder and try to have it come up so that it is 
almost perfectly aligned when you first look through your sights. 
Make these movements as quick as lightning, and then slow up, and 
spend as much time as you dare on steadying down, holding hard, grad- 
ually increasing the pressure on the trigger, and easily pressing on that 
last ounce just as the sights first drift on to the vital spot you want to 
hit. If the game is walking or running through thick timber, don't try 
to swing with it. You cannot see it well enough and the trees will 
confuse you. Instead, pick out an open place through which it must 
pass, aim at that, and the instant that your sights touch the game, fire. 
Never shoot at the whole animal. That is a very good way to miss it 
entirely. You must pick out some vital spot and aim to hit that. 
Game does not always stand broadside on as the artist delights to paint 
it. In fact in most cases' you will find that it has its south end to 
you and is bound north at a very good pace. Aim just behind the 
shoulder for a broadside shot, just at the point of the chest for a head 
on shot, and just under the tail for a rear shot. Always aim a trifle 
below the center of the body, particularly in down-hill shots. The 
tendency in down-hill shots is to overshoot because you see the top of 



THE RIFLE IN THE WILDERNESS 



595 



the animal, not because your bullet goes high. On either up or down- 
hill shots the only distance you want to allow for is the horizontal dis- 
tance, not the distance on the slope. On most game a shot behind 
the shoulder often means that the animal will not drop right away, 




Fig. 164 
An American rifleman in the jungle 

even if shot right through the heart, but may make a wild rush for 
several hundred yards and then fall dead. If you have made what you 
think is a good shot on game and it has run right off follow it for a 
couple of hundred yards to see if it is a case of this kind. If you don't 
come across the animal in that distance sit down and wait an hour 
before following further. This gives the animal a chance to stiffen up. 
If you followed it at once and it was badly wounded it would probably 
jump up and make off as soon as it heard you, and lead you many 
miles, whereas if let alone it will probably only go half a mile or so 



596 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

and then lie down. In a little while it is too stiff and weak to move 
again. 

Always fire as though your first shot was the only one you were 
going to get. Often it is. Try for a clean kill on the first shot. 
You can take much pride in such a shot, and there is good sportsman- 
ship in it. It does away with needless suffering. Pattern yourself 
after the Boer who said to his son: " Here is a cartridge, go fetch me 
an antelope." But always remember this; after the first shot with 
which you have tried your level best, work the action fast, and if 
possible get in another shot right away, and then a third. Shoot as 
long as the game is in sight or moving, but always get a good aim for 
each shot. Don't pull them into the landscape. Practice in rapid fire 
on the military range is excellent practice. 

I append herewith certain maxims of the still-hunter's craft by 
Horace Kephart which I think it would be well for all hunters to 
memorize : 

i. Hunt one kind of animal at a time, and think of it. 

2. Know its strong points and its weak ones. 

3. Know where to hunt, and where not to. 

4. Choose favorable ground. 

5. Consider the animal's daily habits. 

6. Know just what to look for. 

7. Maneuver according to a definite plan. 

8. Work against the wind, or across it. 

9. Move noiselessly, and reconnoiter carefully. 
10. Try to see the game before it sees you. 

ri. Keep cool. 

12. Never fire at anything until you are absolutely certain that it is 

not a human being. 

13. After firing reload instantly. 

14. If you wound an animal, don't follow immediately upcn its track 

unless you are sure it is shot through the heart. 

15. Be patient over ill-luck, and keep on trying. 

To which I add a couple of words of advice of my own. Turn your 
back to the wind. Now every animal in a sector of fifteen degrees on 
either side of the direction in which you face, and for about half a 
mile in that sector is perfectly aware of your presence unless you are on 
a very high hill. There is no use in hunting in that sector, the wind 
has carried your scent to everything. You can crack little sticks and 



THE RIFLE IN THE WILDERNESS 597 

kick up the leaves a little, and brush against the undergrowth and it 
will not alarm the game unless you make an ungodly racket. Every 
animal in moving through the woods makes a little noise of this kind. 
But just cough, or sneeze, or blow your nose, or rattle your rifle, or 
strike a rock with a piece of steel, or speak above a whisper, and 
everything within hearing has departed for safer country, and game 
can hear a sound just about three times as far as you can. 

And lastly let me add what I think is the most important piece of 
advice of all. Be alert. 



CHAPTER XLII 
THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE RIFLE 

THE rifle is a piece of fine mechanism. It must be kept clean, free 
from rust, and well lubricated if it is to do good work, even pass- 
able work, and if it is to remain in serviceable condition. The clean- 
ing and care of the rifle is an important matter which merits the serious 
consideration of all riflemen. It is worthy of note that practically all 
inquiries that I have had on this subject have been from riflemen who 
were not looking for the proper method of cleaning, but rather for a 
way of restoring a weapon which had become in bad condition through 
lack of intelligent care. Once a rifle bore is allowed to become rusted 
and eaten by the acids of fouling there is no way to return it to its 
former degree of excellence. A rifle may be ruined for accurate 
work by two days of neglect. On the other hand, a rifle properly 
cared for should last a rifleman for almost a lifetime of ordinary use 
if he only care for it properly. The work resolves itself into the 
cleaning of the bore after firing, the preservation of the bore from rust, 
the cleaning and lubricating of the working parts, and the care of the 
exterior of the arm. 

The cleaning of the bore. With black powder rifles the cleaning 
of the bore is a simple matter. A wood, steel, or brass cleaning rod 
is used. The bore is cleaned by means of small patches of flannel 
or other cloth on the rod. A patch is placed over the chamber or 
muzzle, centered with the tip of the cleaning rod, and pushed through 
the bore. It is then worked up and down in the bore, thoroughly swab- 
bing it. The first patch or two should be wet with water to wash out 
the black carbon fouling, then should follow a number of dry patches 
which thoroughly dry and clean the bore, and following these a patch 
or two saturated with a heavy grease or any oil having a good body 
which will give an oil coating which keeps away moisture and prevents 
rust. This is all that is necessary for the ordinary black-powder arm. 
The smaller the caliber of the rifle, the more thorough this cleaning 
has to be. With a .22-caliber rifle it is always advisable to clean on 
the following day. Cleaning should always be done not later than 

598 



THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE RIFLE 599 

the evening of the day on which the rifle was fired. A rifle should 
never be left over night without cleaning. 

While this method of cleaning the bore will suffice for the old rifles 
using black powder only, such cleaning will positively result in the 
ruination of the bore of a smokeless powder arm. In the black-powder 
rifle we had only a neutral carbon fouling. In smokeless powder rifles 
the fouling deposited by the fired cartridge is of entirely different 
nature. We must understand the character of this smokeless fouling 
before we can proceed to intelligently remove it and make the bore 
chemically clean. 

Black-powder cartridges require only a weak primer to ignite them, 
but a much more powerful primer is required to properly ignite 
smokeless powder. The fouling of smokeless powder of itself is 
seldom harmful to steel, except that it presents a substance that is 
liable to retain moisture in contact with the steel of the barrel. When 
we fire a smokeless cartridge in a rifle we deposit in the bore the 
fouling of the primer, powder, and possibly some of the metal from the 
bullet itself. As stated, the fouling of the powder itself would probably 
do no harm, but the fouling of the primer is extremely acid, and at 
once gives to the entire fouling a very acid character. Acid in contact 
with steel means eating and rust. We must neutralize and remove 
every particle of this acid fouling. An alkali will neutralize acid, 
therefore for smokeless powder the cleaning solution should always 
be alkaline in character. It happens also that smokeless fouling is 
almost always very sticky and tenacious, and it is much more difficult 
to remove it than black powder fouling. A solution of sal soda in 
water furnishes an effective alkaline cleaning solution, but unless it is 
used very hot, almost boiling, it has a little effect in removing the 
stickiness of the fouling. Experience has shown that a solution of 
amyl-acetate and acetone in oil works very well as a solvent of sticky 
smokeless powder and primer fouling. It will dissolve and neutralize 
both, and can be used cold. The best formula is : 

Amyl-acetate 2 ounces 

Acetone 2 ounces 

Cylinder oil or any gas engine oil having a good body 1 ounce 

Dissolve the oil in the amyl-acetate, using only as much oil as the 
acetate will take up, then add the acetone a little at a time with thorough 
shaking. Or if the rifleman prefers he can use the commercial liquid 
known as " Hoppe's Powder Solvent No. 9," which is practically the 
same thing and which is very widely used. The first three or four 



600 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

cleaning patches should be wet with this solution and the bore scrubbed 
very thoroughly. Then use dry patches until the bore appears clean 
and a patch pushed back and forth several times comes out clean. 
Then oil the bore thoroughly. This cleanser or the hot sal soda solu- 
tion works very well for smokeless powder rifles of low velocity and 
using lead bullets, but it should be particularly noted that this method 
or these solutions are of almost no use at all in cleaning high-power 
smokeless powder rifles using jacketed bullets. 

When we introduce the jacketed bullet, and the consequent high pres- 
sures, with the smokeless powder charge, we greatly complicate mat- 
ters. We not only have the powder fouling, and the acid primer foul- 
ing, but we also have the bore practically nickel or copper plated 
throughout. This metal plating of the bore is called metal fouling. It 
may consist of a very thin, invisible coating of copper or cupro-nickel 
from the jackets of the bullets, or it may be so bad that plainly visible 
lumps of this metal can be seen adhering to the bore of the rifle, par- 
ticularly near the muzzle, after the bore has been partially cleaned. The 
difficulty in this class of rifles arises from the fact that this metal foul- 
ing is distributed throughout the bore, and also has imprisoned under 
it a large quantity of the acid fouling. Ordinary methods of cleaning 
have no effect whatever on the metal fouling. The result is that ordi- 
nary cleaning only removes the powder and primer fouling above 
this metal fouling. After an ordinary cleaning the bore appears 
clean to the eye, but if it be placed away for a day or two in this 
condition it will be noticed that the fouling under the metal fouling 
has begun to get in its bad work, has begun to rust and eat into the 
steel. No matter how thoroughly the bore was cleaned by ordinary 
methods at first, after a day or two the bore will again appear very 
dirty, or if no attention is given to it for four or five days it will be 
found full of rust. Many riflemen clean with ordinary methods, clean- 
ing every day for five or six days after firing. They are only perform- 
ing much unnecessary labor, and are really only polishing off the 
rust that appears from day to day. Every particle of rust means so 
much metal removed from the bore, means small rust holes or pits, 
means a gradual ruination of the bore. Such lack of intelligent care, 
no matter how thorough the scrubbing every day, will result in great 
deterioration of the bore during a single season of steady shooting. 

It is obvious that the solution of our difficulty it to use some material 
or liquid that will dissolve the metal fouling, and allow our cleaning 
solution to get at the acid fouling which is always imprisoned under 



THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE RIFLE 



60 1 



it. Happily we have found that a very strong solution of ammonia 
will do this, and also that ammonia is a very strong alkali and will 
neutralize and wash out acid fouling in a very perfect manner. There- 
fore, with high power rifles using jacketed bullets the only satisfac- 
tory method of cleaning is to use a strong solution of ammonia first, 
swabbing or soaking the bore thoroughly in this, then dry the bore 
thoroughly and clean it with dry patches, and then oil it. This 
method works excellently, and is so efficient that it should be adapted 
for all smokeless powder rifles, whether using jacketed or lead bullets, 
thus simplifying matters by using only one method for all kinds of rifles. 
We will now go into the details of cleaning a modern rifle. 



0X0 



TIP OF CLEANING ROD 



f=!~ J R C 

m 



Fig. 165 
Correct shape for tip of cleaning rod, and details of construction of muzzle guard 

Cleaning materials. For the proper cleaning and care of the rifle 
we need a cleaning rod, a quantity of flannel patches, a wiping rag, 
a bottle of ammonia solution, and a can of oil. These articles require 
separate discussion. 

Cleaning rod. The best cleaning rods are of polished steel. Am- 
monia attacks brass cleaning rods and makes a dirty mess of the opera- 
tion of cleaning. Wood rods are apt to carry grit and dirt which acts 
as an abrasive of the steel, and besides are very prone to break and 
get stuck in the bore. The rod should be as large as the diameter of 
the bore of the rifle will permit, as the larger in diameter the rod is 
the stiffer it is and the less liable is it to break or bend so as to rub the 
bore. Jointed rods are most convenient for field use, and those intended 



602 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

for hunting rifles should have joints about 9 inches long so that they 
will pack well in all forms of packs. Such rods should always have 
long dowel pins in the joints to make them as stiff as possible. For 
hard range use, day after day, the solid rod is by far the best. If the 
rod has a handle it should have a swivel ball bearing so that the rod 
and patch will turn in use and the patch will follow the rifling in- 
stead of rubbing square across the grooves and lands. A handle, 
however, is not necessary, and I prefer a straight steel rod without 
any handle as such a rod can hardly be held against revolving with the 
rifling, and with such a rod one takes care not to use too large a 
patch as he cannot force the patch in without a handle. With a rod 
without a handle one is less liable to use too large patches which get 
stuck in the bore. Fig. 165 gives the best shape for the tip of the 
cleaning rod. A slotted rod should not be used as the patch is liable to 
run all on one side of the rod, and the uncovered side of the naked rod 
rubs and wears the bore. 

Flannel patches. These should be cut from a medium thickness 
canton flannel. The piece of flannel should first be put through the 
laundry, or thoroughly soaked in water and hung up to dry several 
times, before being cut up into patches, as this greatly increases its 
power to absorb the cleaning solution and oils, and also the dirt in the 
bore. New canton flannel is almost waterproof. The size of the patch 
depends upon the size of the tip of the rod, and the size of the bore. 
For a .22-caliber patch a piece about half an inch square is about cor- 
rect. For .25 caliber about three-quarters inch, and for .30 caliber and 
larger about 1 inch. The exact size should be determined by trial, 
the patch being about correct when it requires a pressure on the handle 
of the rod of about 5 pounds to force it through the bore after it has 
once been seated in the bore past the muzzle or chamber. If one is do- 
ing much shooting it pays to determine the size for a round patch, and 
then procure a shotgun wad cutter, and cut the patches in quantities 
with this. Keep the patches in a tin can or waterproof bag so as to 
keep them dry. In the tropics or other very damp climates always 
dry the patches before the fire or over the stove before use. 

Wiping rags. These are for wiping off the exterior of the rifle, 
breech mechanism, etc. The best are made of bird's-eye linen which 
absorbs moisture very readily. Have one for wiping off dirt and mois- 
ture, and another one well oiled with which to give the rifle and action 
a final rub. For the hunting fields it is very convenient to carry in the 
pocket an oily piece of chamois skin with which to wipe the rifle off 



THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE RIFLE 603 

from time to time. Such a rag keeps the rifle in fine condition, pre- 
serves the finish, and is a great saver of oil. 

Ammonia swabbing solution. This solution should be made up as 
follows : 

Stronger ammonia containing 28 per cent gas 6 ounces 

Ammonia persulphate 2 § grains 

Water 4 ounces 

Any large druggist can make this up, small shops may not have the 
correct ingredients on hand. One- fourth the above quantity is enough 
for an individual rifleman to have made up at one time. It should be 
placed in a bottle a little larger than the full amount of the liquid, and 
the bottle must have a rubber cork. For rifle range use one of the 
bottles with patent rubber stopper such as citrate of magnesia is always 
sold in at drug stores is very convenient. For hunting the best con- 
tainer is one of the little bottles with red wood cover that Waterman's 
fountain pen ink is packed in for traveller's use. This bottle has a 
rubber cork and dropper combined, and is so held in the wood cover by 
springs that it is not liable to break nor the cork to come out. The bot- 
tle must be kept tightly corked at all times except for the instant that it 
is opened to wet the patch. If the solution is exposed to the air it loses 
its strength very rapidly. For the same reason it should never be 
kept over two months, but fresh solution should be mixed. 

Oil. The thin oils usually for sale and so extensively advertised 
are not satisfactory. They run off the metal and leave spots exposed 
to the damp air. They have not body enough for either rust protec- 
tion or lubrication. The best oils are those which have about the 
same body as sperm oil. Sperm oil is very good and very cheap. 
Neatsfoot oil is also very good, and in addition you can use it for 
keeping your leather goods waterproof. I have used Marble's Nitro- 
solvent Oil for many years with excellent results, but in very cold 
weather it becomes almost like wax. Any of these oils do splendidly 
in the bore to protect it from dampness for several days, and also are 
fine for lubricating the action in all but the coldest weather. In very 
cold weather the action would either be wiped free from all oil, or a 
non-f reeze oil like Rem-Oil should be used. When the rifle is put away 
for a long time no thin oil is safe as a rust preventative. Instead one 
should use a very thick coating of any of the gun greases such as 
Winchester gun grease, Corol, Black Diamond gun grease, mercurial 
ointment, or any of the petroleum jellies that are free from acid. Oil 
is best carried in a can. Provide a supply of not less than four ounces 



604 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



per month for hunting trips, double this amount for the tropics. 
Muzzle guard. If a rifle cannot be dismounted or the breech bolt 
taken out so that the bore can be cleaned from the breech, it is very- 
necessary to watch the muzzle very closely while cleaning it to see that 
the cleaning rod does not rub the corners of the lands and grooves at 



m m mT 




Fig. i 66 
Cleaning a repeating rifle from the muzzle, showing muzzle guard in use 

the muzzle and wear them, destroying their sharpness. For this rea- 
son it is always best to provide a rifle that has to be cleaned from the 
muzzle with a muzzle guard. This is simply a brass cap which fits 
over the muzzle of the rifle. It has a hole through it slightly smaller 
than the bore of the rifle, through which the cleaning rod runs, see 
Fig. 165. The flannel patch is centered over the muzzle, and the 
muzzle guard slipped over the rod. Then enter the patch a short dis- 



THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE RIFLE 605 

tance into the bore with the tip of the rod, slip the muzzle guard down, 
fitting it over the muzzle of the rifle, and one can then go ahead and 
scrub the bore as vigorously as he pleases, and there will be no danger 
of the rod rubbing the muzzle. (See Fig. 166). For cleaning in this 
manner it is very convenient to first insert in the chamber an empty 
shell which has had the muzzle plugged with a piece of wood cut off 
even with the muzzle of the shell. When one shoves the cleaning patch 
down it then does not enter the chamber, and can be easily pulled back 
again, scrubbing the barrel back and forth. 

It is always best to clean from the breech when possible. Re- 
move the bolt, and place the muzzle of the rifle on a small piece of 
board or clean chip, or piece of paper on the floor. Wet a patch thor- 
oughly with the ammonia swabbing solution, center it over the open- 
ing of the chamber with a finger, then center the patch with the tip of 
the cleaning rod, push the patch into the bore, a little distance past the 
chamber, grasp the rod firmly, and push the patch with a steady motion 
down to the floor, then pull it back until it comes up to the chamber, 
pushing and pulling it back and forth half a dozen times thoroughly to 
swab and scrub the bore. (See Fig. 167). Finally push the patch out 
at the muzzle and discard it. Do the same with four or five other 
patches wet with the ammonia swabbing solution. It should require 
about five pounds pressure and pull to send the rod and patch back and 
forth through the bore. After the bore has been thoroughly swabbed 
with ammonia it should be scrubbed absolutely dry and clean with dry 
clean patches. Keep using clean patches until they come out prac- 
tically clean. The second patch that one uses after the swabbing solu- 
tion will usually go through very hard, and for this reason this particu- 
lar patch should be slightly smaller than the others. When a clean 
patch run back and forth a half a dozen times comes out practically 
clean the cleaning of the bore has been completed. Hold the breech of 
the rifle up to the light (sky) and examine the bore from the muzzle 
to see if it is clean. If it looks bright and clean, with no spots, or 
flakes of dirt or metal adhering to the bore, it only remains thoroughly 
to swab the bore with a final patch wet with gun oil or gun grease. 
If one is cleaning his rifle from the muzzle it will also be necessary to 
clean out and oilthe chamber. Then the rifle may be placed away 
with the assurance that it is thoroughly cleaned. All this sounds 
rather complicated, but in reality, once one has taken the trouble to 
secure all the material, it is very simple indeed, and need never take 
over five minutes. It is much easier, and there is very much less 



6o6 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



labor attached to it, than if one attempts to clean with oil only, or 
with one of the patent powder solvents. 

Usually this method of cleaning will be all that is necessary. It is 
well, however, to examine the rifle about the third day after cleaning. 




Fig. 167 
Cleaning a bolt action rifle from the breech, showing manner of using the clean- 
ing rod 

In most cases it will be found that the bore is in fine condition, and 
the pushing through of a clean flannel patch will bring out only 
clean oil. If the rifle is being used in the hunting fields the bore 
should be wiped out and freshly oiled every evening, even although 
the rifle has not been fired. 

Metal fouling. The examination of the bore from the muzzle 
after one has finished cleaning with dry patches is very important. 
At this time one should look particularly for metal fouling ; that is, the 



THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE RIFLE 607 

heavy or lumpy metal fouling which is liable to be deposited in high 
power rifles having velocities over 2200 feet per second. When the 
bore is viewed from the muzzle this fouling looks like little flakes of 
metal or lead adhering to the bore, particularly on the top of the lands, 
for five or six inches down from the muzzle. If any of these lumps 
or flakes are seen adhering they should be removed at once before 
bad rust spots develop under them. They are too thick and heavy to be 
removed by the ammonia swabbing solution. Instead it is necessary 
to fill the bore with the ammonia metal fouling solution and allow the 
bore to soak for half an hour when these small flakes of metal fouling 
will be dissolved, and the bore can then be dried and oiled as before. 
This ammonia metal fouling solution is made up according to the fol- 
lowing formula : 

Ammonia persulphate 1 ounce 

Ammonia carbonate 200 grains 

Water 4 ounces 

Stronger ammonia containing 28 per cent gas 6 ounces 

Powder the first two ingredients with mortar and pestle, and dis- 
solve in the water. When all dissolved, add the stronger ammonia. 
Any large druggist can make up this solution, but the rifleman usually 
mixes it himself. It is best kept in a large bottle having a rubber stop- 
per such as the bottle which druggists furnish with citrate of mag- 
nesia. Keep the bottle tightly corked except when actually using the 
solution as it loses its strength quickly. Freshly mixed solution is 
best; never keep it over one month. This solution is perfectly safe 
to use, provided the following precautions are observed : Never use 
it in a rifle which is still warm from firing as rust will result almost 
instantly. Never allow it to dry on the bore, but wash it out and 
dry the bore thoroughly as soon as you pour it out of the barrel. Do 
not allow it to spill on the stock of the rifle as it will burn and 
disfigure the wood. 

A rubber cork must be provided with which to cork up the breech 
of the barrel ; cork should be just a trifle larger than the bullet. Seat 
it in the chamber, plugging the bore tight so that none can leak through 
into the action. Procure a 2-inch piece of rubber tube just large enough 
to slip on tight over the muzzle of the rifle. Stand the rifle, muzzle 
up, in a rack. If you have a long steel cleaning rod slip this into 
the bore as it will take up a lot of the room inside the bore and very 
much less solution will be used. In slipping the rod in be sure that 
you do not loosen the cork in the breech. Slowly and carefully pour 



608 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

the ammonia metal fouling solution into the bore until it completely 
fills the barrel, and raises in the rubber tube on the muzzle. (The solu- 
tion will evaporate a little during use, and if the tube were not present, 
and the bore simply filled even with the muzzle, a little would evaporate, 
lowering the high-water mark, and the drying of the bore at the muzzle 
might result in a little rust at this spot). The solution is white and 
clear when it is poured in. Allow it to remain in the bore for not over 
30 minutes. There is no advantage, but much danger, in letting it re- 
main longer than this. The solution does almost all its work in the 
first five minutes. At the end of half an hour pour out the solution. 
It will be a deep blue color from the copper and nickel that it has 
dissolved. Immediately push through one flannel patch to remove most 
of the solution, then scrub the bore with several patches wet with 
water, then follow with a number of dry, clean patches until the bore 
is perfectly dry and clean. Then grease the bore thoroughly and the 
job is finished. All the metal fouling is removed, and the rifle can be 
put away with perfect safety. I have cleaned rifles in this manner after 
a long day's shooting, then greased them thoroughly, and placed them 
away in a dry place, and left them entirely alone for six months. 
On pushing a patch through such a rifle it comes out covered with 
clean grease, and the bore is found to be in perfect condition. 

I always used this method of cleaning with the ammonia metal foul- 
ing solution during the national matches and other military rifle com- 
petitions. At the end of the day's shooting, on arriving at my tent, I 
would take out the bolt of the rifle, place a cork in the breech, and a 
tube over the muzzle, stand the rifle in the rack, and pour the bore full 
of the solution from the bottle where I always kept it ready mixed. 
Then I would wash up and dress for mess, and then pour out the solu- 
tion, clean and dry the bore in about two minutes, oil it, and the rifle 
was cleaned most perfectly. A rifle cleaned in this way never " sweats 
out " afterwards. The cleaning makes the bore chemically clean. 
I have one Model 1903 rifle which has been fired in competitions and 
practices over 5,000 rounds, and has always been cleaned in this manner. 
Just recently I shot twelve consecutive bull's-eyes with it at 600 yards. 

This method of cleaning with the ammonia metal fouling solution is 
the best and safest, and I believe that it should always be used with 
high-power rifles in shooting on rifle ranges. It is, however, not prac- 
tical in the hunting field. Happily, however, it is a fact that if the 
bullets be greased with Mobilubricant as described in Chapter XVIII the 



THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE RIFLE 609 

rifle will not foul with this lumpy, heavy metal fouling, but only with 
the thin, invisible plating which can be easily removed with the am- 
monia swabbing solution. Therefore the hunter should grease his 
bullets with Mobilubricant, should carry a Spitzer greaser filled with 
Mobilubricant in his pocket, and his kit should contain a jointed steel 
cleaning rod, a waterproof bag of flannel patches, several wiping 
rags, the ammonia swabbing solution in a Waterman traveller's bottle 
made for fountain pen ink, and a can of gun oil. With such an out- 
fit for the care of the rifle the bore can be kept in perfect condition 
for years. This entire kit with cleaning material enough for three 
months weighs a little less than two pounds, and is best kept in a little 
canvas roll about 9 inches long by 2 inches in diameter. 

Emergency cleaning. Sometimes it happens that one cannot obtain 
ammonia for cleaning the bore. If this is so he usually cannot obtain 
any of the powder solvents or sal soda either. For emergency cleaning 
a brass wire bristle brush should always be carried. Make a funnel 
of oiled paper or birch bark, shaped so that it will fit into the chamber 
of the rifle. Heat a kettle of water to the boiling point. Pour the 
water through the bore from the breech, and then scrub it thoroughly 
with the brass brush. Repeat this several times, and then dry the 
bore and oil it. Repeat this cleaning again daily for four days 
after firing, but always give the rifle a good bath of the ammonia 
metal fouling solution when you get back where you can obtain it. 
In an emergency oil may be made from animals in the following 
manner. 

" It is easy to make excellent gun oil from the fat of almost any ani- 
mal. Rattlesnake oil has more body than almost any other animal oil ; 
but that of woodchucks, squirrels, 'coons, etc., is good. A fine oil can 
also be made from the fat of ruffed grouse, or from the marrow of a 
deer's leg bones. Put the fat on a board and with a sharp knife cut 
it up fine; then put it in the hot sun light, or warm it gently (do not 
let it get hot) before a fire; now force the oil through a strong cloth 
bag by squeezing it. To clarify it so that it will never become viscid, 
put it in a bottle with a charge of shot (or shavings from the lead of a 
bullet), cork the bottle up, and stand it where the sun's rays will strike 
it. A heavy deposit will fall. Repeat, and you will then have an oil 
equal to that of watchmakers, but with enough body to stay where it 
is put, rather than running down into the chamber of the gun so as to 
leave unprotected spots in the barrel. A large squirrel will yield over 



610 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

an ounce of tried oil, a fat woodchuck nearly a pint, and a bear several 
gallons — eight gallons of grease have been procured from a big 
grizzly." — Horace Kephart in " Camping and Woodcraft." 

Rust. If rust appears in the bore of the rifle it should be removed 
at once. A very slight superficial rusting will do little harm to a rifle 
provided it is removed at once, and not allowed to occur again. To 
remove, polish the bore with a flannel patch thickly coated with Win- 
chester Rust Remover, or make up a patch of fine steel wool and polish 
with it. Steel wool is long fine shavings of steel bundled together like 
cotton waste, and is fine for polishing steel. The polishing with either 
rust remover or steel wool always results in a very slight wearing away 
of the surface of the steel, and these materials should be used only 
when absolutely necessary, and never more than is necessary. If the 
rifle be properly cleaned, and protected from rust with a good grease 
or oil there will be no reason whatever for their use as rust will not 
form. 

Care of the mechanism. The action and working parts of the rifle 
must be kept perfectly clean, free from dust, dirt, sand, and dampness, 
and should be slightly lubricated with oil or graphite. Linen cloths are 
excellent for cleaning the action and working parts as they absorb all 
dirt and old oil. A small paint brush also helps to get dirt out of 
crevices and cracks. Some rifles, particularly the bolt action arms, are 
so constructed that every part of the action can be taken apart by 
hand, the various parts wiped off clean, and then wiped with an oily 
rag before assembling. Such arms are very easy to keep clean. Ordi- 
narily but little trouble will be experienced with the older arms which 
can only be taken apart with difficulty, and with the aid of screwdrivers, 
drift pins, etc. In ordinary use these actions close up so tightly that 
they accumulate little dirt, but occasionally, as after a sand storm in 
the desert, or a wetting in a hard rain storm, or a canoe upset, they 
have to be taken entirely apart and thoroughly cleaned. Chapter IV 
gives directions for dismounting and assembling the actions of all 
American rifles. The working parts should not be too heavily cov- 
ered with oil as the surplus lubricant flowing to the outside will only 
help to collect dirt. For lubrication it is only necessary to wipe the fric- 
tion surfaces off with an oily rag. Graphite lubricant is better for the 
bolt of a bolt action rifle as it does not flow, and stays in place on the 
bolt where it is needed. 

The exterior of the rifle. The outside of the rifle should always be 
kept bright and clean. Moisture in the air, rain, and sweaty hands 



THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE RIFLE 611 

all tend to produce rust. In the evening, after every day's use, the en- 
tire outside of the rifle should be wiped off to dry it with a rag, and then 
all the metal parts should be wiped off with an oily rag, and after this 
is done, when putting the rifle in its rack, do not handle the metal 
parts with the bare hand. 

The stock. The stock ordinarily requires little attention other than 
to keep it clean and dry by the wiping every evening. After every rain 
or wetting, and about once a month it should be thoroughly polished 
with linseed oil by thoroughly coating it with the oil and rubbing it in 
with the bare hand until all the oil is rubbed in and the stock becomes 
quite warm. Such treatment will keep the stock in fine condition for 
all time. Do not use ordinary gun oil on the stock. 

The gun-sling. Keep the leather gun-sling supple and in good con- 
dition by oiling it about once a month, either with neatsfoot oil, or with 
a solution of two parts of ordinary castor oil to one part of alcohol. 
Thoroughly saturate the leather with the oil, particularly on the rough 
side, and rub it in well with the hand. Finally leave a rather wet 
coating of the oil on the surface of the leather to work in and dry. 
Such treatment will keep the leather soft like a kid glove, and will 
render it waterproof. 

Care of arms in cold iveather. In very cold weather a rifle which 
has been exposed to the cold for any length of time, if then taken 
into a warm room, as for example a warm cabin, will condense moisture 
on every portion of it, inside and out. It is practically equivalent to 
dipping the rifle in water, and the rifle must be taken all apart, thor- 
oughly dried, oiled, and assembled. Once this has been done the rifle- 
man will learn in cold weather always to leave his rifle outdoors, or 
else to warm it so gradually that condensation does not occur. Once, 
at the conclusion of a long hunting trip in the West, I took a 63 mile 
stage trip, in zero weather, and then immediately jumped into a warm 
Pullman car. Fortunately I had had enough experience to know what 
would happen to my rifle, and an hour after getting into the train, when 
the rifle had warmed up, I took it out of its case and wiped the bore and 
exterior dry, and oiled them. On arriving home six days later I took 
the rifle entirely apart and gave it a thorough cleaning. Every part and 
piece, except the bore and exterior which had been wiped off in the 
train, had developed a heavy coating of rust. In very cold weather, 
below zero, rifles require very little attention to keep them in good 
shape. There is no moisture in the air at these very low temperatures, 
and rust does not start. If the bore and action be cleaned and lubri- 



612 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

cated with a combination oil and powder solvent of the non-freezing 
variety like " Rem-Oil " (manufactured by the Remington Arms-U. M. 
C. Co.), the rifle will remain in excellent and serviceable condition in 
arctic weather. 

Care of arms in the tropics. I have hunted and explored for a num- 
ber of years in Panama which is perhaps as damp and warm a country 
as is found in the world. The dampness is almost beyond belief. It is 
a very hard climate on firearms. In my house at Culebra I had con- 
structed a dry closet over the kitchen. In this closet an electric light 
was always burning, and thus it was kept fairly dry. In cleaning my 
rifles I always warmed and dried my flannel patches and wiping cloths 
over the stove first. The rifle was then thoroughly dried before it 
was oiled. Instead of using oil I always used one of the heavier gun 
greases on every part except the working portions of the action. I 
examined the rifles every two weeks, and occasionally found evidences 
of rust starting, which I quickly checked. In this manner I managed 
to keep all my arms in good condition during my stay of three years in 
this climate, except one rifle which I left in a canvas case for some 
months while I was away on a trip. The canvas absorbed moisture, and 
on my return I found this arm badly rusted on the outside. 

In the jungle one perspires most profusely. The perspiration would 
frequently run down my shirt sleeve and directly into the action of the 
rifle. In the rainy season the rifle would be wet from rain, water on the 
vegetation, and perspiration. As a consequence it was absolutely neces- 
sary to clean and dry the rifle both inside and outside every evening 
when in the jungle. It was so much easier to do this with a bolt- 
action rifle, on account of its being possible to dismount the entire 
breech mechanism without tools in several seconds, that I used only 
this type of rifle in the jungle. 

Rifle cases. Cases for the rifle should be of a material which will 
not absorb moisture. The best are made of very heavy waterproof 
canvas like Pantasote, and they should not be lined. The worst are 
those lined with flannel which absorb moisture and cause rust in damp 
climates, and which are almost impossible to dry out when they get 
wet. The case should be icinforced with heavy leather over those 
portions which cover the muzzle, sights, and action to protect them. 
A good sling strap should be attached. 

Storage of rifles. If the rifle has to be packed away for a long time 
the very best and safest method is that used in the United States Army 
for many years. The rifles are first thoroughly cleaned and dried. 



THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE RIFLE 613 

They are then very thoroughly coated on every part, inside and out, 
with Cosmic which is a heavy grease like cosmoline. Winchester gun- 
grease would do as well. The bore is almost completely filled with this 
grease, and it is heavily painted on all other parts with a paint brush. 
The rifles are then packed in arm chests of wood. In these chests the 
rifles are held by muzzle and butt-plate alone, the muzzles going into a 
hole bored in a plank at one end of the chest, and the butt-plate into a 
recess in a plank in the opposite end of the chest. The rifles are packed 
either 10 or 20 in a chest, and are so well secured therein by the fittings 
at muzzle and butt that they can be shipped by freight with perfect 
safety. Rifles thus preserved and packed will keep in perfect condition 
indefinitely. Rifles packed in this manner have been kept in store in 
the ordnance depot in Manila, in a very damp climate, for 15 years 
without the slightest rusting or deterioration. 

Caution. In conclusion attention is called to the fact that sporting 
magazines frequently publish articles from men claiming to be riflemen 
in which the author advises cleaning the bore of the rifle with any 
of the patent powder solvents, or even with oil alone. A careful read- 
ing of this chapter will show that such a method in the case of a high- 
power rifle firing jacketed bullets is no cleaning at all. The bore is not 
cleaned, it is simply polished. After the first cleaning the bore will start 
to rust, and this rusting will continue for some days. If the rifle be 
cleaned again during these days of rusting the cleaning will simply con- 
sist of polishing off the rust which has accumulated. Each speck of 
rust takes just so much metal with it, and thus there is a steady deter- 
ioration of the arm which sooner or later will begin to show results by 
a decrease in the accuracy, and by a roughening and pitting of the bore. 



CHAPTER XLIII 
RIFLE-RANGE CONSTRUCTION 

WE may classify rifle ranges into extemporized ranges, gallery 
ranges, and regular outdoor ranges. It is with the latter that 
this chapter deals ; that is, with a range of 200 yards or over, requiring 
markers at the butts, and some form of bullet stop to catch wild shots. 
All such ranges have certain characteristics in common. There is a 
firing point, usually a level piece of ground marked by stakes ; a pit in 
which the marker stands when marking the target, and in which the tar- 
get carrier is placed ; a parapet in front of the pit for the protection of 
the marker ; and a bullet stop of some sort in rear. The combined para- 
pet, pit, and bullet stop are usually called the " butts." Sometimes 
when a large body of water (lake or ocean) lies back of the butts the 
bullet stop can be omitted. 

The size and general character of the range will depend upon the 
number of men who are going to use it, and whether it is to be used 
for military work requiring long ranges, or by a civilan club which may 
require a distance up to 200 yards only. In some cases future expan- 
sion must be considered. Besides these matters we have one other 
very serious matter to consider in the location of a rifle range, namely 
the safety. A rifle range is absolutely safe only when all the space in 
rear of the butts for the extreme range of the rifle is controlled or 
owned by the range authorities. Such a site can almost never be 
obtained. In most localities it is not difficult to find ground on which 
a range can be built which will be safe from all but accidental shots. 
Thus a bullet stop thrown up immediately behind the targets, and 
extending 20 feet above them, on a rifle range up to 600 yards, should 
each 99.99 per cent, of all the shots. Such a bullet stop should be faced 
with sand or clear earth at as steep a slope as it will stand. For a 
private club range of 200 yards a bullet stop 10 feet above the targets 
will usually suffice. Both these cases presuppose that the land in rear 
is sparsely settled. Neither of them would be safe enough to take a 
chance on with a city street a few hundred yards in rear. A hill for 
bullet stop must be quite high to catch ricochets, etc., or if of medium 
height one may chance it if there be no rocks on the surface to cause 

614 



RIFLE-RANGE CONSTRUCTION 



615 



ricochets, and the ground in rear of the target be quite steep. Plough- 
ing and terracing helps to make a hill safer. It is possible to make a 
range quite safe by erecting a steel-faced bulkhead a short distance in 
front of the firing point as shown in Fig. 168. The bulkhead catches all 
high shots which would go over the bullet stop. 




SIDE ELEVATION 



VIEW TOWARDS TARGETS 

Fig. 168 

Safety bulkhead construction 

A — 1 Prone firing point. 

B — Kneeling and sitting firing paint. 

C — Standing firing point. 

D — Bullet stop filled with sand to catch shots which would ricochet on ground. 

E — Line connecting eye of man 5 feet tall in firing position with point 2 feet 
below top of bullet stop at butts. 

F — Line of normal fire. 

G — Top of bullet stop behind target pit, or top of hill. 

H — ■ |-inch steel plate, 4 feet high, on supports of 6" x 6" timbers, placed 50 
feet in front of firing point. 

The location of a rifle range with respect to safety usually involves 
taking some sort of a chance. The risk should be very small. On one 
military range which has been in use for about 50 years there is a 
sand bank bullet stop carried up 20 feet above the top of the targets, 
and immediately behind them. This range is used up to 600 yards 
with 50 targets. On an average about 25 shots go over the top of 
the bullet stop during an entire day's firing, all targets running. By far 
the larger percentage of these overs are ricochets from the top of the 
parapet and ground between the firing point and target. A mile and a 
half in rear of the butts is a country road, but no farm houses in direct 



6i6 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



line of fire. Once or twice a season a farmer driving along this road 
will hear a bullet flying overhead. The board of trade in a near-by town 
looks out that there shall be no injunctions. This is a case where a 
range is not absolutely safe, but so nearly so that the chance can be 
taken. 

Where possible a range should always face the north so that the 
sun will shine on the targets during the whole day, and not in the 



BULLET STOP t 

BUTTS p - - - ; ■ ■; r^^-j 



D 



20ovo rmiNC- point 



500 It. FIRING POINT 



MOID. FIRIN& POINT 



UO YD. FIRING POINT 



BOO YD. FIRING POINT 



I00O YD. FIRING POINT 



STORS-HOUSCS 

t wotK-5Mors 



UMINIGTRATIIN SLOG, 



^STATISTICAL. OFFICE. 



Fig. 169 
Layout of rifle range with single butt, and firing points one behind the other 

eyes of the shooters. If this is not possible, then a military range 
should face west so that the sun will be on the targets during the morn- 
ing when most military shooting is done, and for similar reasons the 
civilian club range had better face the east. 

As regards layout there are two general types of ranges, those with 
a single butt, and the firing points one behind the other, and the echelon 
range where the butts are in echelon, and the firing points all in one 
straight line. Typical layouts of these two types are shown in Figures 
169 and 170. Where the location affords the necessary space in width, 
and the extra butt construction can be afforded, the echelon system is 
far preferable. Men can be shooting at each range at the same time. 
In competitions or the practice of a number of men, when one man is 
through at a certain range he does not have to wait for every one else 



RIFLE-RANGE CONSTRUCTION 



617 



to complete at that range before going back to the longer range, but can 
start in at the next range right away. 

Modern butt construction is a simple matter, although one which in- 
volves quite an amount of labor. The type of butt is always the same. 
There must be a parapet which adequately protects the marker, there 



fOOO 10 BUTTS 



800 YD BUTTS 



MOUNTAIN, oct*N, OR LAKC BACK OF BUTTS. 



bOO ID BUTTS. 



500 TO BUTTS. 



300 YD BUTTS 



F1MNG POINT FOR M.I. RAHOES 



Fig. 170 
Layout of target range, butts in echelon, and one continuous firing point 

must be a target carrier which raises the paper target up over the 
parapet for firing, and which lowers it into the pit for pasting, the pit 
must be drained, and it is desirable that there be telephone communi- 
cation between the firing point and the pit. Fig. 171 shows a number 
of types on various kinds of ground. The type on the side hill is the 
most expensive to build. The one with the parapet entirely above the 
level of the ground is used on land where the water level is high, or 
where it is swampy. If a bullet stop has to be built, it adds a lot to the 
cost, of construction. 

Fig. 172 is a working drawing of a modern target pit, all the measure- 
ments being given. This is constructed for one of the modern steel 
target carriers which are very much the best if they can be afforded. 
The revetment, that is, the wall which holds up the inside wall of the 
parapet, may be either of stone set in concrete, of concrete, brick, or 
of 2-inch wood planks with uprights 6 inches square spaced every 3 
feet. If of wood the uprights must either be securely anchored back 
into the parapet, or what is better, braced against a bank on the back 
side of the pit by cross pieces run across at the top of the pit between 
the target carriers. 



6i8 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 




SWAMPY GROUND 



BULLET STOP 

SURMOUNT tO BY CRIB WORK FILLED 

WITH ROCK 



_ JlftOUNO Ll*ff - . ,. — - — 



USUAL CONSTRUCTION 





REMOVE 
ALL ROCK FROM 
THIS SURFACE 



HILLSIDE 

Fig. 171 
Showing construction of butts on various sites 




Fig. 172 

Profile of rifle range butt, showing construction. Dimensions correct for com- 
mercial steel target carrier 



RIFLE-RANGE CONSTRUCTION 



619 



Very often one can extemporize material from which to construct 
the butt. At Culebra, Panama, I built a large rifle range with what 
material I could pick up on the dump of the Panama Canal. The 
revetment was made of old railroad ties and old galvanized iron taken 
from the roofs of old shacks along the railroad. The upright railroad 
ties were anchored back into the revetment by means of wire cable made 
by twisting many strands of old telegraph wire and barbed wire. Not- 
withstanding the fact that many of the ties were rotting when put in 
place this range has stood for four years, and is still practically as 




Fig. 173 
Butt constructed at Camp Gaillard, Panama Canal Zone, of scrap material. 
Measurements are correct for U. S. Army wood frame target carrier 
T T T — Old railroad ties. 

GI — Old galvanized iron roaring. 
C — Wire cable made of old telegraph wire. 
R R — Rocks. 
S — Sand bags. 

sound as when new. It was built at a cost of $36, not including the 
labor of the troops who built it. Fig. 173 shows the design and con- 
struction, it being fitted for the regular United States Army target car- 
ried which has a framework of wood. The dimensions show the correct 
size of the pit for this type of carriage. 

In all pits the parapet should be at least 5 feet wide on top. Three 
feet in almost any soil is wide enough to stop any bullet, but the crest 
just below the targets gets cut away after a time by the bullets, and 
before a five-foot top is cut away to a dangerous extent the hole will 
show so clearly that one will be sure to have it repaired. The interior 



620 



THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



crest must always be crowned with a layer of sand-bags, that is, with 
gunny sacks or concrete sacks filled with sand or with dirt free from 
rocks and pebbles. If this is not done there is always danger of a 
bullet some time striking the underside of a rock or pebble on the top 
of the parapet and being deflected down into the pit. I have seen two 
men killed by accidents of this kind, but such accidents have never 
occurred on ranges where the crest of the parapet has been crowned 
with bags filled with sand or clean earth. 

Where the butts contain a number of target carriers there should 
always be a latrine in the butt for the use of the markers, and at one 




Fig. 174 
The target butts constructed at Camp Gaillard, Panama Canal Zone, by the au- 
thor entirely from scrap material 

end of the butt there should be a small house or shed for the protection 
of the targets that are being used from day to day. The distance be- 
tween targets should be not less than four feet for 200 and 300 yards, 
and not less than six feet for 500 and 600 yards. Each target should 
be numbered by a large wooden number standing on the front face of 
the parapet below the target. It is best to place this number a little 
low if possible so that there will be about a foot of dirt on the parapet 
visible between the bottom of the target and the top of the number 
board, otherwise the number boards will be shot away very quickly. 
If the parapet is not of sufficient height to allow the placing of 
the numbers below the targets they must be placed above, either on 
the bullet stop, or on a wire strung along over the targets. For two and 
three hundred yards the numbers should be 2 to 3 feet high, for 500 
and 600 yards 5 feet high, and for 1000 yards eight feet high. If the 






RIFLE-RANGE CONSTRUCTION 621 

background on the board be painted black and the numbers white they 
can be seen most distinctly. Fig. 175 shows a plan of a butt containing 
eight targets. The parapet must be such a height with relation to the 
carriage that there is absolutely no danger of a bullet passing over the 
top striking any of the metal parts of the carriage and being deflected 
down into the pit. Examine for this particularly when the range is 
first built, and again every six months. I have known the whole 
parapet of a range to settle eight inches in three months and make it 
absolutely unsafe for this reason. To find the correct height of the 
parapet, have a target placed in the carriage, and have the target run up 
to its full height. Go behind the target and sight just under the lower 
edge of the target at the firing point. The parapet should be brought 
up to the line joining the lower edge of the target and the firing point. 
The parapet should also extend at least 7% feet above the bench or plat- 





ft 


T 


A 


T 


H 




A 




V 










P 




N 




N 















Fig. 175 
Plan of butt for eight targets 
A-A — Pit. 
P-P— Parapet. 
N-N — Numbers. 

H — Target house, 18x12 feet with doors at each end, roof below parapet 

top. 
L — Latrine. 
S — Steps leading to top of parapet. 

form on which the markers stand when marking the targets. The little 
shed roof over a portion of the pit has two uses, it shelters the markers 
from the hot sun, and from dirt and gravel which occasionally falls into 
the pit, and it also prevents fools from standing up on the seats and 
sticking their heads up over the parapet. 

The very best system of marking the targets is by means of spotters 
and marking disks arranged at the side of the target. A bull's-eye (5) 
is signalled by displaying a circular white disk, a four by a red disk, a 
three by a white disk with a black cross on it, and a two by means of 
a black disk. Most military ranges are provided with these disks on a 
pole. There is a disk on each end of the pole, each disk being painted a 
separate color. When the shot strikes the target, the marker is sup- 
posed to pull the target which has been fired upon down into the pit, 
at the same time the target on the opposite carriage rising into the 



622 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

firing position. The marker notes where the bullet has struck the 
target which has just been lowered and reaching up with the pole he 
displays the proper colored disk, placing it with its center over that 
portion of the upper target where the rifleman has struck the lower 
target. This system is far from satisfactory. It does not indicate to 
the rifleman with any surety exactly where he has struck the target, it 
is slow, and it is very tiring on the marker ; also it requires at least two 
men to mark a target with any degree of rapidity. Instead, almost 
all rifle ranges are now arranged with a little framework alongside the 
target carrier, but below the crest of the parapet. The pole of the 
marking disk is cut in half, and the halves stuck in the framework as 
shown in Fig. 176. Normally the disks are set with their edge towards 
the firing point. When it is desired to indicate the value of a hit it is 
only necessary for the marker to reach up and give the proper pole a 
turn so that the proper disk shows with its face towards the firing 
point. To indicate the exact location of the hit on the target, spotters 
are provided. These are circular disks of cardboard, 2V2 inches in 
diameter for 200 yards, 5 inches in diameter for 600 yards, and 8 
inches in diameter for 1000 yards. They are painted black on one 
side and white on the other. The black surface is used to indicate a hit 
on the white surface of the target, and the white side to indicate a 
hit in the bull's-eye. Through the center of the spotting disk runs a 
wire which is hooked into the bullet hole. In marking with this system, 
but one target is used on a carrier, the rear carriage having a dummy 
weight attached to it so that the carrier will balance and run smoothly. 
When the target is struck the marker pulls the target down, takes out 
the old spotter and pastes up that hole, notes where the bullet has struck, 
places a spotter in the new bullet hole, runs the target up into place 
again, and then turns the marking disk at the side of the target so as to 
display the right signal to the firing point. The signal is allowed to 
stay in view for about 30 seconds and is then brought back with its 
edge towards the firing point. At the firing point the scorer sees the 
large disk displayed alongside the target and records the value of the 
hit. The rifleman with his telescope or field glasses, or even with his 
naked eye, sees the spotter sticking in his last bullet hole, and knows 
to within an inch of where he has struck the target. This is a very 
satisfactory system, and is the one in use at the national matches. Of 
course this method cannot be used in rapid fire, the method there 
being the same as that prescribed in the " Small Arms Firing Manual " 
of the Army. 



RIFLE-RANGE CONSTRUCTION 



623 



The paper target is pasted on a wood frame covered with muslin, 
the sides of this frame are extended below the square portion to form 
legs. These legs are stuck in iron holders provided for them in the slid- 
ing carriages of the target carriers. In order to have the paper target 
present a good appearance, remain secure on the frame, and have its 




Fig. 176 
Modern method of marking the military target. A " three 

and disked 



has just been spotted 



true shape and dimensions, it is necessary that some pains be taken 
about pasting it on the frame. The muslin on the frame must be 
smoothly and tightly tacked on. Certain concerns make target paste, 
but this is never better, and much more expensive than well-made flour 
paste. To make flour paste for pasting targets and for sticking on 
pasters, proceed as follows : Use an ordinary galvanized iron bucket 
which holds 12 quarts. In this place 2 quarts of flour, and pour in 
a little cold water gradually, stirring all the time until the flour is all 
wet and the lumps are broken up, making a rather thin dough. Then 
pour in boiling water, stirring rapidly. It is necessary that the water 
be boiling hot, and that the paste be stirred very briskly. Don't fill 
absolutely up to the top with the boiling water as the paste swells as 
soon as the boiling water is poured in and the stirring started. Don't 
make more paste than is needed at one time as it sours in a few days. 
If it gets too thick at any time it can be thinned down with a little 
cold water. To keep rats from gnawing the targets, put a tablespoon- 



624 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 

ful of concentrated lye dissolved in a point of water to each 12-quart 
bucket of paste. 

To paste the target on the frame, have the target frame with muslin 
tightly tacked and stretched, on a table provided for this purpose. The 
top of the table should be just the size of the inside of the frame with 
an edging around the top but an inch below it, so that when the frame 
is placed on the table top the muslin will be supported by the top, and 
the frame setting down over the top will be supported by the edging 
strip. Using a whitewash brush, put paste thickly but evenly all over 
the back of the target, and then fold from each end to the center, thus 
bringing pasted surfaces together, and place the target aside for a few 
minutes. This will allow the paste to soak into the paper target. Then 
paste the muslin on the target frame getting the coat on evenly. 
Now open up the paper target and put it on the frame, getting it 
started square and brushing out all the wrinkles with a clean white- 
wash brush. See that all the edges of the target are securely pasted 
down. When this target dries it will be perfectly smooth and even, 
and it will stay on in any wind, and in any rain but the very heaviest. 

Pasters are best provided without any paste at all on them. Square 
ones are the cheapest, they usually come in perforated sheets like post- 
age stamps, about an inch square, 100 to a sheet. About 75 per cent. 
should be white and the other 25 per cent, black. The marker should 
be provided with a small board about eight inches square, a small can 
of paste, and a number of pasters. He places a thick coat of paste on 
the board, and on it places a number of black and white pasters. The 
paste is placed on the board thick enough to stay wet all the time. 
When he pastes up a bullet hole he simply slides a paster off the board 
and sticks it over the bullet hole. He should take pains when pasting 
around the edge of the bull's-eye to preserve the outline of the bull as 
perfectly as possible. 



CHAPTER XLIV 
THE NATIONAL RIFLE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA 

FOR the purpose of promoting skill in military rifle shooting, an art 
which until that time had remained largely undeveloped, the Na- 
tional Rifle Association of America was formed November 24, 1871, 
with General A. E. Burnside as president ; Colonel William C. Church, 
vice-president; General John B. Woodward, treasurer; and General 
George W. Wingate, secretary. The Creedmore rifle range, which has 
been so closely associated with the early history of military rifle shoot- 
ing in this country, was obtained a year later, purchased by joint 
contributions from the State of New York, and the boroughs of Brook- 
lyn and New York City, and' laid out following a visit to the English 
range at Wimbledon and the Canadian ranges by the committee who 
had the matter in charge. 

During the first few years of the National Rifle Association's exist- 
ence several clubs were former and affiliated with it, and the first meet- 
ing at the Creedmooor range was held June 21, 1873. In this contest 
there were entered as contestants most of the New York National 
Guard organizations, the United States Engineers, and a squad of Reg- 
ulars from Governor's Island. Affiliated with the N. R. A. at that 
time was the club known as the Amateur Rifle Club, an organization 
formed to promote long range shooting. It was this club which ini- 
tiated the movement which led to the holding of the first international 
long range rifle match at Creedmore in the fall of 1874. 

During the quarter century which followed, the National Rifle Asso- 
ciation continued the work of encouraging rifle practice, but one by one 
the principal members died, until early in 1900 there was talk of organiz- 
ing a new association of riflemen. Plans for the new organization were 
discussed at a convention of riflemen held at the Sea Girt competitions 
during August and September of that year. Following this convention 
it was found practical, with the co-operation of the surviving members 
of the original association, to perfect a reorganization of the parent 
body, and on December 17, 1900, Brigadier-General Bird W. Spencer 
of New Jersey was elected president. 

Upon the reorganization, steps were at once taken to boom rifle prac- 
tice. Annual competitions were revived, and invitations were sent to 

625 



626 THE AMERICAN RIFLE 



foreign countries to participate in a match for the Palma trophy. This 
trophy, emblematic of the world's championship, was the gift of Ameri- 
can citizens. The conditions laid down for this match called for 15 
shots at 800, 900, and 1000 yards, 36-inch bull's-eye, four ring, 53 
inches in diameter, military rifles to be used, conditions which pertain 
in this match to the present day. The first of these annual competitions 
was conducted at Sea Girt, New Jersey, August 30 to September 7, 
1901, on the occasion of the twenty-ninth annual meeting of the associa- 
tion. Nine state teams, a team from the United States Marine Corps, a 
Canadian team to compete in the Palma match, and a team from the 
Ulster Rifle Association of Ireland to compete in an Irish-American 
match similar to the Palma, were entered. In addition to these matches 
there were competitions for several trophies which are familiar to the 
riflemen of today, including the Wimbledon Cup, the Soldier of Mara- 
thon, and the Hilton Trophy, the latter two having been donated by 
the National Rifle Association. In the international matches the 
Canadian and Irish teams were victorious over the Americans. Cash 
entry fees were charged in the matches, and part of the money returned 
as prizes, a practice which obtained in the association until 1917, 
when cash prizes were abolished. 

During this meeting plans were set on foot to pursuade Congress 
to provide a suitable trophy for a national match, in which all the 
services, as well as the National Guard teams, were to compete annually. 
On May 21, 1902, Representative Mondell of Wyoming reported from 
the committee on military affairs of the House of Representatives the 
bill which resulted in the establishment of the national matches. At 
the national matches of 1902, held at Sea Girt, New Jersey, from 
August 29 to September 6, fourteen state teams, two army teams, and 
a Marine Corps team competed, and there were 6841 entries in the 
individual matches. 

Concerning itself with the conduct of the annual matches of the 
association, and with campaigns to place military arms within the reach 
of civilians, the National Rifle Association continued its work, and 
met with marked success. In 1903 a team of American riflemen was 
sent to England to compete for the Palma trophy won by the Canadians 
in 1901. This competition resulted in the winning of the match by the 
American team at Bisley, England, on July 1, 1903, and acted as a 
great stimulus to rifle practice in this country. Other efforts resulted 
in adding to the national matches a national individual rifle match, and a 
national individual pistol match. 






PRICE LIST OF 
SUPPLIES 



SOLD THROUGH 

THE 

DIRECTOR OF CIVILIAN MARKSMANSHIP 

WAR DEPARTMENT 

Room 1633, Temporary Building No. 5 

20th and C Streets NW. 

Washington, D. C. 

To Members of the 

NATIONAL RIFLE ASSOCIATION 

OF AMERICA 



IMPORTANT NOTICE 

EXCISE TAXES ON SALES BY THE MANUFACTURER 

Under the provisions of sections 605 
and 610 of the Revenue Act of 1932 a 
tax of 10 per cent is imposed on field 
glasses, rifles, and ammunition sold by 
the Ordnance Department through the 
Director of Civilian Marksmanship, 
except the U. S. rifle, cal. .30, M1917. 
Spare parts and accessories for rifles 
and ammunition components are not 
taxed. 

The tax, at the rate of 10 per cent, 
will be computed on the price of the 
article plus the charge of packing and 
handling. 



EFFECTIVE JULY 1, 1932 

Subject to change without notice 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR ORDERING 

Read all instructions carefully before ordering. If 
instructions are followed, delays in filling orders will 
be avoided. 

(a) The classes of property listed in this price list 
are sold only to members of the National Rifle Associa- 
tion through the Director of Civilian Marksman- 
ship. 

(&) All orders for the purchase of material listed in 
this price list must be accompanied by remittance in 
the form of money order, bank draft, or certified 
check, made payable to the Director of Civilian 
Marksmanship, and forwarded direct to his office at 
Room 1633, Temporary Building No. 5, Twentieth and 
C Streets NW., Washington, D. G. If prompt ship- 
ment is desired remittance should be made oy post 
office or express money order. Shipments of orders 
accompanied by certified checks or bank drafts must 
be withheld for sufficient time to permit of collection 
of such funds. 

(c) Personal checks are not accepted. 

(d) Send a separate remittance for each type of 
rifle and each class of material ordered. 

(e) As it is impossible for this office to compute the 
amount of postage on articles shipped, all orders will 
be shipped by freight or express, charges collect. 
Purchasers, therefore, will KINDLY STATE THE 
METHOD OF SHIPMENT DESIRED. Where no 
instructions are given, method of shipment will be 
determined by this office. The only exception that 
can be made is with small orders for spare parts, 
in which case sufficient POSTAGE STAMPS to pay 
postage must be forwarded with the order. 

if) MATERIAL CAN NOT BE SHIPPED BY 
PARCEL POST COLLECT. 

(g) The U. S. rifle caliber .30, model 1917, used and 
repaired, is sold " as is." This rifle has been inspected 
at the arsenals and is considered serviceable but is not 
guaranteed in any way. 

(7i) Always send your N. R. A. MEMBERSHIP 
CARD FOR THE CURRENT YEAR, PROPERLY 
SIGNED, with all orders for the purchase of supplies. 
The card will be returned to you as soon as your order 
has been approved. 

(i) All orders must be accompanied by a statement 
that the material is being purchased for personal use 
and not for resale. 

U) Items marked with a star (*) are also available 
at Benicia Arsenal, California. 

(7c) When orders are approved, a copy thereof will 
be mailed to the purchaser for his information. 

(I) When ordering barrels or receivers provision 
must be made to have the barrels fitted to the receivers. 
This can be done locally or at the arsenal. If the fit- 
ting is to be done by a local gunsmith this office should 
be so informed at the time the order is placed, other- 
wise it will be necessary to arrange to have the fitting 
done at the arsenal. 

If new barrel is to be assembled to receiver by the 
arsenal, bolt assembly should accompany the receiver 
in order that same may be properly adjusted for 
head space. 

PLEASE READ ALL INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY BEFORE ORDERING 

3—9482 



B S!! s ! m . bly :..! tyle T (with front ^ fi xed 

Barrel and receiver7sseZbi"y7serv7ce 

Barrel and receiver assembly, Nationa 
Barrel and receiver assembly, sporting 

5-A or Pecker telSiT^&^ez^ffiSj ^^ 
Barrel and receiver assembly, style T 42 . 50 

head-space gajestor SESKSLSjS* f bolt )" haViDg 

Base, rear sight, movable.. 

Bolt assembly, service (with extractor collar") 243 

stvle^TT^ N f tl0nal Match ' s P° r «ng, or ' 
style T (with extractor collar) 2 7S 

Bolt mechanism, complete, National" mZZ' 6 " 01 
sporting, or style T, with headless firing ntn 

and reversed safety lock g P n 

Bolt mechanism, complete, service . r ~ 

Bushing, guard screw JJ 

Cap, butt plate " 

Cap, rear sight slide ^ 

Catch, floor plate " 

Cut-off 25 

Ejector. ~ 39 

Extractor 20 

Follower, service 55 

Follower, National MatchZZ " " f? 

Guard, hand, assembly ^ 

Guard, trigger .'" ' 

Guard, trigger, sporting Z." """ 2 ' ?j 

Leaf, rear-sight 

Lock, bolt-sleeve ZZ 68 

Lock, safety, assembly ~ *j? 

Lock, safety, assembly, reversed.... 47 

Mainspring " " ' 

Nut, stock-screw "...... " ° 5 

Pin, bolt-sleeve lock JJJ 

Pin, butt plate "" - ° 2 

Pin, ejector 01 



03 
^r srv?p g Vp aSSembly ' Nati o^rMateh7Iporting; 



Pin, firing, assembly, service ZZZZ 



or style T 

or style T, for reversed safety lock c. 

Pin, floor-plate catch.. ° 

Pin, front-sight U1 

Pin, rear sight joint !JJ 

Pin, rear sight slide cap.... JJ^ 

Pin, sear V^ 

Pin. fixed-stud .. 02 

Pin, trigger..... 01 



Plate, butt, assembly (without screws) 8 4 

mte, butt, assembly, National Match .' .' 87 

PLEASE READ ALL INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY BEFORE ORDERING 



3—9482 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR ORDERING 

Read all instructions carefully before ordering. If 
instructions are followed, delays in filling orders will 
be avoided. 

(a) The classes of property listed in this price list 
are sold only to members of the National Eifle Associa- 
tion through the Dirbctor of Civilian Marksman- 
ship. 

(6) All orders for the purchase of material listed in 
this price list must be accompanied by remittance in 
the form of money order, bank draft, or certified 
check, made payable to the Director of Civilian 
Marksmanship, and forwarded direct to bis office at 
Boom 1633, Temporary Building No. 5, Twentieth and 
C Streets NW.. "Washington, D. C. If prompt ship- 
ment is desired remittance should he made hy post 
office or express money order. Shipments of orders 
accompanied by certified checks or bank drafts must 
be inthhrld for sufficient time to permit of collection 
of such funds, 

(c) Personal checks are not accepted. 

(d) Send a separate remittance for each type of 
rifle and each class of material ordered. 

(e) As it is impossible for this office to compute the 
amount of postage on articles shipped, all orders will 
be shipped bv freight or express, charges collect. 
Purchasers, therefore, will KINDLY STATE THE 
METHOD OP SHIPMENT DESIRED. Where no 
instructions are given, method of shipment will be 
determined by this office. The only exception that 
can be made is with small orders for spare parts, 
in which case sufficient POSTAGE STAMPS to pay 
postage must be forwarded with the order. 

(f) MATERIAL CAN NOT BE SHIPPED BY 
PARCEL POST COLLECT. 

(ff) The U. S. rifle caliber .30, model 1917, used and 
repaired, is sold " as is." This rifle has been inspected 
at the arsenals and is considered serviceable but is not 
guaranteed in any way. 

(h) Always send vour N. R. A. MEMBERSHIP 
CARD FOR THE CURRENT YEAR. PROPERLY 
SIGNED, with all orders for the purchase of supplies. 
The card will be returned to you as soon as your order 
has been approved. 

(i) All orders must be accompanied by a statement 
that the material is being purchased for personal use 
and not for resale. 

(;) Items marked with a star (*) are also available 
at Benicia Arsenal, California. 

(k) When orders are approved, a copy thereof will 
be mailed to the purchaser for bis information. 

(I) When ordering barrels or receivers provision 
must be made to have the barrels fitted to the receivers. 
This can be done locally or at the arsenal. If the nt- 
tine is to be done bv a local gunsmith this office should 
be so informed at the time the order is placed, other- 
wise it will be necessary to arrange to have the fitting 
done at the arsenal. 

If new barrel is to be assembled to receiver by the 
arsenal, bolt assembly should accompany the receiver 
in order that same may be properly adjusted ioi 
head space. 
PLEASE READ All INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY BEFORE OTOERING 



RIFLES 

Make separate remittances for these articles. 

The price of rifles does uot. include the cost of packing 

unless so stated in the price list. Charges for packing major 

items are as follows: 

1 rifle *1. 35 

1 stock -• 1- 35 

1 harrel and receiver assembly 1.35 

For each additional rifle, or stock, or barrel and receiver 

assembly in same order, $1 additional. 

V. S. rifle, cal. .22, M1922M1, N. R. A. (new 
model cal. .22 Springfield), with target $46.00 

Extra magazine for above rifle 1. 56 

U. S. rifle, cal. .30, M1903, style T, 28 and 30 inch 
heavy-service barrel, fitted with model 1922 
pistol-grip stock, Winchester hooded front 
sight, Lyman No. 48 rear sight, Springfield 
action, weight about 14 pounds 85. 00 

Rifle, International Match Target, cal. .30, Mar- 
tini action (reconditioned) 231.46 

(This rifle is fitted with lieavv 31-inch barrel, Swiss 
front sight, Lyman roar siglit. adjustable sling swivel, 
adjustable paim rest, sot trigger, combination trigger 
guard and finger rest and special International Match 
Target ride stock with two adjustable butt plates.) 

♦U.S. rifle, cal. .30, M1903 (Springfield style S, 
service rifle) 32. 75 

U. S. rifle, cal. .30, M1903A1 ( Springfield service 
rifle with Type C pistol-grip stock) 33.85 

U. S. rifle, cal. .30, M1903. Special Target (a 
reconditioned National Match rifle with type 
C pistol-grip stock) 35.48 

U. S. rifle, cal. .30, M1903, N. M. (National 
Match Springfield rifle, star-gaged and spe- 
cially selected, equipped with type C pistol- 
grip stock) 40. 90 

U. S. rifle, cal. .30, M1903, N. M. (National 
Match Springfield rifle, star-gaged and spe- 
cially selected, equipped with type B pistol- 
grip stock, receiver drilled and tapped for the 
Lyman receiver sight) 40.50 

U. S. rifle, cal. .30, M1903, N. R. A., sporting 
type (sporting type Springfield rifle fitted with 
Lyman No. 48 rear sight and sporting type 
pistol-grip stock) 42. 50 

*TJ. S. rifle, cal. .30, M1917, new. 20. 00 

*TJ. S. rifle, cal. .30, M1917. used 7. 50 

ACCESSORIES AND APPENDAGES 

For method of determining packing charges, see " Spare 
Parts." 

Make, separate remittances for the following articles : 

Rod, cleaning, brass, cal. .22, 5-jointed $0.25 

Rod, cleaning, cal. .22, M1922M1 68 

Cover, front sight, locking 38 

♦Rod, cleaning, barrack, M1916, cal. .30 40 

♦Rod, cleaning, M1913, with case, complete 

(jointed), cal. .30 93 

'Rod, cleaning, M1916, with case, complete 

(jointed), cal. .30 1.08 

•Oiler and thong case, complete, cal. .30 59 

PLEASE READ ALL INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY BEFORE ORDERING 









•Cover, front sight, TJ. S. rifle, M1903 $0.05 

♦Gun sling, M1907, leather 1- 31 

*Gun sling, M1917, webbing 1. 16 

♦Holster, pistol, M1916, cal. .45 1-67 

♦Holster, revolver, M1909, cal. .45 1- 43 

•Screw driver, rifle 24 

Reloading set, for 12-gage shotgun, including 
recapper and decapper, rammer, and powder 

measure !• 00 

Crimping tool, for 12-gage shotgun 25 

Packing charge on above two items 25 

MILITARY TARGETS 

Make separate remittances for these articles. 
A targets (200 and 300 yards, slow fire), each.... $0.03 
B targets (500 and 600 yards, slow fire), 20-inch 

bull's-eye, each • 05 

C targets (800 to 1,000 yards, slow fire), 36-inch 

bull's-eye, each 14 

D targets (200 to 500 yards, rapid fire), prone, 

silhouette bull's-eye, each 06 

L targets, pistol, 5-inch bull's-eye, each 05 

E targets, pasteboard, kneeling, M17 (pistol 

silhouette) 15 

Cloth, target, 76-inch, per yard 28 

Pasters, target, black, envelope (10,000 per en- 
velope) 43 

Pasters, target, buff, envelope (10,000 per en- 
velope) 43 

SPARE AND SEPARATE PARTS FOR ALL M1903, 
CAL. .30 (SPRINGFIELD) RIFLES 

The parts for service rifle only available at Benicia. 

Make separate remittances for these articles. 

A standard packing and handling charge of 10 per cent of 
the list' price will bo made on orders tor spare parts and 
accessories (oxoi.pt stork, or barrel and roeoiver assembly, for 
rifles), with a minimum charge of 25 cents for any one order. 

Band, lower $0. 40 

Band, upper 1. 14 

Baud, special, with swivel, for sporting type 

pistol-grip stock and service barrel 1. 30 

Band, special, with swivel, for sporting type 

rifle (also cal. .22 rifle) 72 

Band, special, with swivel, for type T rifle 1. 51 

Barrel assembly, service (with rear sight fixed 

base and front sight fixed stud) 7. 10 

Barrel assembly. National Match (with rear 

sight fixed base and front sight fixed stud).... 9.83 
Barrel assembly, National Match (without rear 

sight fixed base, with front sight fixed stud), 

polished and browned 9. 83 

Barrel assembly, sporting (with front sight fixed 

stud) 11. 90 

(Can also be furnished drilled and tapped for front 
block for Lyman 5-A or Fecker telescope, without 
extra charge.) 

PLEASE READ ALL INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY BEFORE ORDERING 



style T (with front sight fixed 



Barrel as: 

stud) " ".. .'. 1 $36.50 

Barrel and receiver assembly, service 12. 15 

Barrel and receiver assembly, National Match.... 15. 83 
Barrel and receiver assembly, sporting 17. 90 

(Can also be furnished drilled and tapped for front 
block on barrel and rear block- on receiver, for Lyman 
5-A or Feeker telescope, without extra charge.) 

Barrel and receiver assembly, style T 42. 50 



head-space gages for proper assembly of bolt.) 

Base, rear sight, movable 07 

Bolt assembly, service (with extractor collar). ... 2.43 
Bolt assembly, National Match, sporting, or 

style T (with extractor collar) 2.78 

Bolt mechanism, complete, National Match, 

sporting, or style T 0. 01 

Bolt mechanism, complete, National Match, 
sporting, or style T, with headless firing pin 

and reversed safety lock 6.12 

Bolt mechanism, complete, service 5.66 

Bushing, guard screw 07 

Cap, butt plate 13 

Cap, rear sight slide IS 

Catch, floor plate -25 

Cut-off 39 

Ejector. 20 

Extractor 55 

Follower, service 36 

Follower, National Hatch 38 

Guard, hand, assembly 43 

Guard, trigger 2. 20 

Guard, trigger, sporting 2.50 

Leaf, rear-sight Gs 

Lock, bolt-sleeve 18 

Lock, safety, assembly -43 

Lock, safety, assembly, reversed 47 

Mainspring ° 5 

Nut, stock-screw °4 

Pin, bolt-sleeve lock 02 

Pin, butt plate °1 

Pin, ejector ° 3 

Pin, firing, assembly, service 69 

Pin, firing, assembly, National Match, sporting, 

or style T 85 

Pin firing, assembly, National Match, sporting, 

or style T, for reversed safety lock 85 

Pin, floor-plate catch 01 

Pin, front-sight 01 

Pin, rear sight joint 02 

Pin, rear sight slide cap • 02 

Pin, sear °2 

Pin. fixed-stud 01 

Plate butt, assembly (without screws) 84 

Plate! butt, assembly, National Match 87 

PLEASE READ ALL INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY BEFORE ORDERING 



Plate, butt, M1922 (sporting, style T, and cal. 

■ 22 > $0.67 

Plate, floor g2 

Plate, floor, sporting and style T 82 

Plunger, cut-off 03 

Receiver, service 5. 02 

Receiver, National Match 5.50 

Receiver, National Match, sporting, and styie 

T, with screw holes for Lyman No. 48 sight... 6. 00 

(Receivers are sold only to competent gunsmiths and 

members having bead-spare ca^os for proper assembly 
of bolt and barrel.) 

Screw, butt plate, large, each.... 04 

Screw, butt plate, small, each 02 

Screw, butt plate, M1922, each 05 

Screw, butt-plate spring 03 

Screw, butt-swivel plate 02 

Screw, cut-off '. 03 

Screw, front sight 02 

Screw, guard, front 03 

Screw, guard, rear 05 

Screw, lower band 02 

Screw, rear sight slide binding 03 

Screw, rear sight slide cap 02 

Screw, rear sight windage assembly 20 

Screw, stacking swivel 02 

Screw, stock, front (length 1.69 inches) 04 

Screw, stock, rear (length 1.77 inches) 04 

Screw, upper band 03 

Sear 34 

Sear, National Match, sporting, or style T 35 

Sight, front (blade only) 07 

Sight, front complete (front sight, with movable 
and fixed studs, screw, and pin) 75 

(When ordering front sight complete, include pack- 
ing -a cents, posta-v. one to three sights, 8 cents 
Send stamps to cover postage.) 

Sight, rear, assembly (with movable base and 

without windage screw assembly) 2.24 

Sleeve, bolt, assembly 1- 27 

Sleeve, bolt 1- ° 6 

Sleeve, firing-pin °3 

Slide, rear sight, assembly 4S 

Slide, rear sight drift, No. 6, assembly 19 

Slide, rear sight drift No. 7, assembly 19 

Slide, rear sight drift, No. 8, assembly 19 

Spindle, cut-off oe 

Spring, bolt-sleeve lock 01 

Spring, butt plate 01 

Spring, cut-off 01 

Spring, floor-plate catch 01 

Spring, lower band I 2 

Spring, magazine H 

PLEASE READ ALL INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY BEFORE ORDERING 



Spring, rear sight base ?0. 13 

Spring, sear 02 

Note — Order stocks bv number stated. The prices 
on stocks do not- include bolt plates. Packing charge 
for one stock is $1.35 ; for each additional stock, $1. 

Stock, assembly, cal. .30, 42-2-51 A (old* style 

servicer — straight grip) 3 - °5 

Stock, assembly, cal. .30, D1836 (pistol grip, 

type C, new service and National Match) 4.15 

Stock, assembly, cal. .30, SA6595 (pistol grip. 
N. K. A. sporting type, cut for Lyman receiver 

sight, shotgun-type butt plate) 5.00 

Stock, assembly, cal. .30, SA6596 (same as SA 
6595, except not cut for Lyman receiver 

sight) 5 - 00 

Stock, assembly, cal. .30, SA6597 (same as SA 

6595, except grooved for style T barrel) 5. 00 

Stock, assembly, cal. .30, SA6598 (same as SA 

6595, except grooved for service or National 

Match barrel without rear sight fixed base)..- 5.00 

Stock, assembly, cal. .30, SA6599 (same as SA 

6595, except grooved for service or National 

Match barrel with rear sight fixed base) 5.00 

Stock, assembly, cal. .30, SA6600 (same as SA 
6595, except with special shallow barrel groove 
to be hand fitted to polished service or 
National Match ban-el without rear sight 

fixed base) 8.50 

Stock, assembly, cal. .30, SA6601 (same as 
SA6595, except not cut for Lyman receiver 
sight, with special shallow barrel groove to be 
hand fitted to polished service or National 

Match barrel with rear sight fixed base) 8.50 

Stock, special International free rifle (for style 
T rifle, handmade of selected walnut. Full 

details on request) 79.00 

Stop, bolt, assembly 03 

Striker 21 

Stud, fixed (front sight) 37 

Stud, movable, assembly (front sight) 35 

Swivel, butt, assembly 26 

Swivel, lower band 19 

Swivel, stacking 20 

Trigger 32 

Trigger, National Match 33 

SPARE PARTS FOR U. S. RIFLE, CAL. .22, 
M1922M1, N. R. A. 

Parts common to the U. S. rifle, cal. .30, M1903, are not 
listed below. 

Band, lower $0. 51 

Barrel, assembly 10. 50 

Barrel and receiver, assembly 16.75 

Bolt, assembly (head assembly and handle 

assembly) 7. 07 

Bolt, with firing mechanism, assembly 10.20 

Bushing, guard screw 04 

Cap, firing pin rod (first M1922) 21 

Disk, rear sight aperture, .04-inch peep 40 

Ejector 60 

PLEASE READ All INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY BEFORE ORDERING 



Extractor $0.46 

Guard, trigger 2. 20 

Knob, rear sight elevating screw 65 

Knob, rear sight lock bolt 25 

Knob, rear sight windage screw 15 

Latch, bolthead 17 

Magazine, assembly. 1, 56 

Mainspring 03 

Mechanism, firing, assembly 3.04 

Pin, bolthead latch 01 

Pin, firing, assembly 82 

Pin, lower band 01 

Pin, retaining ejector 01 

Plate, butt, M1922 67 

Plate, floor 86 

Plunger, bolthead latch 21 

Pointer, rear-sight 08 

Scale, rear sight windage 08 

Screw, rear sight lock bolt spring 04 

Screw, rear sight mounting, long 15 

Screw, rear sight mounting, short 15 

Screw, rear sight pointer 04 

Screw, rear sight windage scale 08 

Screw, set, rear sight elevating screw knob 04 

Screw, set, rear sight windage screw knob 04 

Screw, stop, rear sight 04 

Sleeve, firing-pin 03 

Spring, bolthead latch 01 

Spring, ejector. 01 

Spring, rear sight click 08 

Spring, rear sight lock bolt 08 

Spring, retaining, magazine 31 

Stock, assembly, cal. .22, D1823 (pistol grip, 
M1922M1 N. H. A. type, cut for Lyman re- 
ceiver sight, shotgun-type butt plate) 4.37 

Stop, ejector. 40 

Striker, assembly 55 

GLASSES, FIELD, TYPE EE, N. G. F. 

Glasses, field, type EE, Naval Gun Factory, 
magnification 6 degrees, field of view 8 de- 
grees, with leather carrying case with neck 
and shoulder straps ; price, including tax, post- 
age, and insurance (with or without mil. 
scale) $13.15 

AMMUNITION 

Make separate remittances for these articles. 
Packing charges : 

In case lots. 50 cents each case. For each additional 
case, 15 cents, provided all can be shipped from same 
arsenal. 
For less than case lots, 75 cents. 
•Ball cartridges, cal. .30, model 1906, manufac- 
tured prior to July 1, 1919 (low grade) : 

Per case of 1,200 $21.60 

Per bandolier of 60 i- 08 

(150-grain pointed full metal jacketed cupro- 
nickel bullet, muzzle velocity 2.700 f.-s.) 

PLEASE READ ALL INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY BEFORE ORDERING 

3—0482 



•Cartridges, ball, cal. .45, model 1911, for model 

1917 revolver, per case of 1,200 $25. 49 

•Cartridges, ball, pistol, cal. .45, model 1911, per 

case of 2,000 42. 48 

•Cartridges, ball, cal. .30, Ml, service, 172-gr., 
9° boat-tail bullet, gilding metal jacket, ma- 
chine loaded : 

Per case of 1,200 36. 82 

Per bandolier of 60 rounds 1. 85 

•Cartridges, ball, cal. .30, model 1898 (forKrag), 
220-gr., round-nose, jacketed bullet: 

Per case of 1,000 rounds 35.22 

Per 100 rounds 3. 53 

•Cartridges, ball, cal. .22, short rifle (new stock) : 

Per case of 10,000 15. 00 

Per 1,000 I- 50 

This cal. .22 ammunition consists of various lots of 
manufacture and type of powder, and is in a high state 
of serviceability. It does not have the noncorrosive 
primer. 

AMMUNITION COMPONENTS 
Make separate remittances for these articles. 
Packing charges for bullets : 

For first 500 or less. 75 cents. 
For each additional 500. 35 cents. 
(Example : 2.000 bullets, $1.80.) 
Bullets, cal. .30, 172-gr., 9° boat-tail, gilding 

metal jacket, per 1,000 $5. 66 

Bullets, pistol, cal. .45, per 1,000 4. 96 

Packing charges for cartridge cases : 
For 1,000 or less. 75 cents. 
For each additional l.tioo or less. 50 cents. 
(Examples : 1,500, $1.25 ; 2,000, .$1-25 ; 3.000, $1.75.) 
N. M. cartridge cases, for model 1906 ammuni- 
tion, unprimed, per 1,000 8. 26 

Same, primed, per 1,000 10. 26 

Packing charges for cartridge primers : 
For 1,000 or less, 30 cents. 
For each additional 1.000 or less, 10 cents. 
(Examples : 1,500, 40 cents ; 2,00O, 40 cents, etc.) 

Cartridge primers, cal. .30, per 1,000 1. 30 

(Chlorate nonmercurial, for 30-06, Krag and all 
large sporting cartridges.) 

Cartridge primers, cal. .45, per 1,000 1. 36 

(For cal. .45, Government M1911 auto pistol car- 
tridges only.) 

The shipment of powder by express is prohibited by 
the Interstate Commerce Commission. 

Packing charges for smokeless powder (all amounts 
include cost of container) : For 1 pound, 30 cents; 
2 pounds, 40 cents: 7 pounds', ::,0 cents: 10 pounds, 
80 cents; 15 pounds, $1.00; 25 pounds, $1.25; 50 
pounds, $1.75. 
Smokeless powder for ball cartridges, model 

1906, per pound 63 

(This powder is of the dense nitrocellulose tvpe and 
is officially known as " Pyro .30 cal. d. g." and is simi- 
lar to du Pont Military Powder No. 20 and Hercules 
No. 30S. It can be used in a variety of cartridges 
other than the .30 Springfield.) 
Smokeless powder, 1928M1, IMR 1185 90 

(This is a progressive burning nil roeellulnse powder 
and was use,l in loading tie' 10::s National Match am- 
munition. Fifty grains will give a muzzle velocity of 
approximately 2.600 f.-s. with a mean pressure of 
approximately 43,000 pounds.) 
Smokeless powder, pistol No. 5 (including con- 
tainer), per pound 1.59 

Smokeless powder, Bull's-eye, for revolver and 
pistol ammunition (including container), per 
pound 1% 43 

JS-SMOKELESS POWDER MUST BE SHIPPED BY FREIGHT 



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Address all communications relative to the 
issuing of equipment to rifle clubs, rifle club 
qualifications, and reports of rifle clubs, also to 
the sale of material listed in this price list to 
the— 



DIRECTOR OF CIVILIAN MARKSMANSHIP 

WAR DEPARTMENT 

Room 1633, Temporary Building No. 5 

20th and C Streets NW. 

Washington, D. C. 




Address all communications concerning mem- 
bership, rifle club organization and affiliation, 
payment of rifle club and membership dues, and 
subscriptions to the " American Rifleman " to 
the— 



NATIONAL RIFLE ASSOCIATION 

OF AMERICA 

Barr Building, Farragut Square 

Washington, D. C. 



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